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Fear Essay | Essay on Fear for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Fear Essay:  Fear is a natural, powerful, and primitive emotion experienced by humans, usually triggered by an unpleasant perception of danger that is either real or imaginary—fear causes psychological and, ultimately, behavioral changes in people.

Human beings experience fear as a response to a specific stimulus that occurs either in the present or in expectation or anticipation of a future threat that might be a risk to themselves. Response to any kind of fear varies from person to person.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Fear for Students and Kids in English

We are providing students with samples of a long essay of 500 words on the topic Fear and a short essay of 150 words on the topic Fear for reference.

Long Essay on Fear 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Fear is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Fear, the quintessential human emotion, is an utterly unavoidable human emotion. The extent and range of fear from different things vary from person to person, but the emotion is the same. Fear is capable of causing psychological changes and, ultimately, behavioral changes in a person.

Humans experience fear as a response to a specific stimulus to a situation occurring in the present or an anticipated future threat that is a risk to oneself. The response to fear arises from the recognition of danger, leading to the confrontation of the situation or escaping the fear or avoiding the situation – also known as fight or flight response.

We all humans are programmed in a manner to recognize fear to avoid or reduce being harmed. Learning from the past about what can protect one in dangerous situations makes people capable of doing many things that one wouldn’t typically be able to or willing to respond to the threat.

Fear is broadly classified into two types, innate fears, and identity fears. Innate fears are the fears that every individual has on some level, and humans are born with these fears, which also serve as a kind of survival instinct. Humans develop identity fears as they evolve.

Apart from this, many people also fear love and connection. These fears are a subset of identity fears. As humans grow in their lives, they tend to grow connections with people, and these bonds become of great value to the person. Losing these bonds is one of the biggest fears of many.

Sometimes fear originates from real threats, but it can also originate from imagined danger – which makes fear experienced by people either rational or irrational. Rational fear is the fear of something that is real – occurring from something entirely possible or will occur. Fear of mortality is an example of a rational fear as we humans are immortal. However, irrational fears are necessarily implausible, but the fear arises from a real place in the psyche.

In some people, fear is also a response to mental health conditions such as anxiety disorders, panic attacks, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Phobia is an irrational or extreme or aversion of something. An aspect of anxiety disorder can be the tendency to develop a fear of fear.

Many people confuse fear of phobias. Fears are typical responses to objects or events. Still, fear becomes a phobia when the fear interferes with functioning correctly and maintains a consistent quality of life. Fear in humans involves a biochemical response to the situation as well as a high individual emotional response.

Fear is an emotion experienced in the mind, but it triggers some strong physical reaction in one’s body. As soon as one’s body recognizes fear, the brain starts working, alerting the nervous system, which sets the body’s response to fear into motion. The human brain releases stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, increasing blood pressure, and adrenaline. One starts breathing faster, and blood flow in the body changes – blood flows away from the heart into the limbs.

Short Essay on Fear 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Fear is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Fear is one of the seven universal emotions experience by humans all over the world. Any fear arises with the threat of harm, physical, emotional, or psychological – from a real or imaginary situation.

Usually perceived as a negative emotion, fear can also be positive and healthy. Fear serves as a survival instinct helping humans in recognizing situations that can be harmful or dangerous.

Fear makes one foggy and makes it impossible to think clearly or make the correct decision. However, some people enjoy fear and gain pleasure due to the adrenaline rush experienced in some situations.

Fear will hold one back from achieving victories and significant accomplishments. Everything that one does in life will strike a little bit of fear in their hearts; however, overcoming the fear and giving one’s best is the most satisfying feeling. Don’t let your fears stop you from fulfilling your dreams.

10 Lines on Fear Essay in English

1. Researches have shown that humans can smell others’ fear and react to each other’s scents. 2. One can inherit fear from their parents or grandparents just like any other genetic trait. 3. We humans aren’t born with most of the fears; fear is often learned from knowledge and experience. 4. Fear is the opposite of love as the brain releases chemical oxytocin when in love, which helps overcome learned fears. 5. Sleep offers a unique state in which selected fears can be eliminated. 6. One big scary event in one’s life is not what causes fear; instead, it is a mixture of environment and genetics. 7. Fear can become extinct by associating non-fearful memories with the event. 8. Stress hormones released by humans helps in enhancing the extinction of fear. 9. Some people associate fears with pleasure – the thrill of the experience doesn’t end with the process’s end. 10. Fear can make one foggy making it difficult to make the right decision or think clearly.

FAQ’s on Fear Essay

Question 1.  Why do we experience fear?

Answer: Fear is an unavoidable feeling that is experienced by all. Fear is programmed into humans’ nervous system, and it works like a response to the perception of danger.

Question 2. Is it necessary to experience fear?

Answer: Fear helps in protecting us. Humans are equipped with survival and instinct, which is a response to the sense of danger or an unsafe feeling.

Question 3.  How can fear be avoided?

Answer: Talking about your fear, imagining the worst that could happen, distracting oneself with happy thoughts, and clearing out the mind by taking time in understanding what is causing the fear and anxiety.

Question 4. What are a few most common fears of humans?

Answer: Fear of height, fear of the dark, fear of closed spaces, fear of insects, fear of blood, fear of the violent weather, fear of dying are a few most common types of fear experienced by people.

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97 Fear Essay Topics & Examples

🏆 best topics about fear & essay examples, 📌 good fear essay topics, ❓research questions about fear.

If you study psychology, you will probably have to write a fear essay at some point. The emotion is strong and can significantly affect any person, with effects potentially impairing his or her judgment and performance.

It can also result from a variety of sources, such as phobias or trauma, and manifest in many different conditions, taking the person by surprise. As such, it is essential to study the topic of how a person may deal with fear, with the most well-known one being courage.

However, there are many ideas on how the trait can be developed that can be used as fear essay hooks, but not all of them are viable. This article will help you write a powerful essay on the various topics associated with fear.

Fear is an emotion triggered by a perceived threat as a response that prepares the person to address it in an appropriate manner. As such, it is a reaction that helps people cope in the short term, but its effects when the person is constantly in a state of fear can be dangerous.

Examples include physical health deterioration due to the hormone production associated with the reaction and permanent mental health effects, such as PTSD.

As such, people who are affected by chronic fear should try to escape the state to avoid threats to their well-being. The first step towards doing so would be to discover and investigate the causes of the emotion.

Fear triggers in response to danger, whether real or perceived, and the nature of the reaction can provide you with ideas for fear essay titles. While it may be challenging to alleviate real conditions of real danger, not many people have to live in such situations.

Most chronic fear comes from various phobias, or persistent fear reactions to situations that may not warrant such a response. There are numerous variations, such as acrophobia, the fear of heights, and they are interesting topics for an investigation.

Between the many tall buildings designed by people and travel methods such as airplanes, a person with the condition may find it challenging to avoid stressful situations. However, they can generally avoid worrisome conditions with careful planning and the help of others.

Courage is a well-known quality that helps people overcome their fear, one that is described in many stories and images. However, it should be noted that courage is not the absence of fear, but rather a willingness to acknowledge it and confront the source.

The act involves a conscious effort of the will, and many people believe they do not have the capacity to do so. You should discuss the ways in which people can learn to be courageous and the methods that can be used to inspire them to try.

Here are some additional tips for enhancing your essay:

• Focus on the positive implications of fear and courage, as they are responsible for many of humanity’s great successes, and provide fear essay examples. Our society is safe from many different dangers because people were afraid of them.
• Make sure to cite scholarly sources wherever appropriate instead of trying to rely on common knowledge. Psychology is a science that has developed considerably since its inception and can offer a wealth of knowledge.
• Follow standard essay formatting guidelines, such as the use of academic language, the separation of different essay parts with appropriate titles, and the use of an introduction and conclusion.

Get more fear essay theses and other useful paper samples at IvyPanda!

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• ”Courage to Teach” by Palmer: How to Deal With Fear The relationship between the teacher and the student is a very important element of the teaching process according to the author, meaning that the human condition must be considered in the process of teaching.
• The News Media Role in the Culture of Fear The reception of such news has the potential of eliciting fear among the public depending on one’s understanding or relation to the news spread by the media houses.
• Robert Frost’s Fear Poetry In Sheehy’s article, Lawrence Thompson notes that the ultimate problem of Frost biographer is to see if the biographer can be enough of a psychologist to get far enough back into the formative years of […]
• “Mediating Effect of the Fear of Missing Out” by Fontes-Perryman and Spina In particular, they were interested in the FOMO and CSMU’s potential mediating effect between OCD and SMF. Overall, the main strength of the argument is that the authors conducted two separate studies involving people from […]
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• The Views on the Freedom from Fear in the Historical Perspective In this text, fear is considered in the classical sense, corresponding to the interpretation of psychology, that is, as a manifestation of acute anxiety for the inviolability of one’s life.
• Hitler’s Use of Propaganda and Fear-Mongering The establishment of the National Socialist German Worker’s Party led to the adoption of a properly coordinated propaganda campaign that would prepare the country for war.
• Fear of Immigrants and People of Color in the US The enhancement of strict immigration laws was due to the transfer of immigrants out of Europe to foreigners from Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
• Increasing Level of Fear of Crime and Its Cause Curiel and Bishop report that the rate of victimization, meaning the rate of actual crime taking place, is opposite to the rate of fear of crime.
• The Salem Witch Trials: A Time of Fear The outbreak began with the sudden and rather unusual illness of the daughter and niece of the local Reverend Samuel Parris.
• Gagging Prevalence and Its Association With Dental Fear in 4-12 Year Old Children The Gagging Assessment Scale (GAS) is a questionnaire in which children answered questions about their feelings during a regular dental procedure, for example, tooth brushing.
• Researching of Why Human Beings Fear Death From the religious perspective, some people know about their sins committed on earth in their life and are afraid of the punishment for those sins as opposed to people who believe in God and His […]
• Fighting Fear: The Only Secret Behind Becoming Rich The aim of the proposed research is to determine how fear of risks may affect the decisions taken in accounting and finance and in turn the development of an entrepreneurial culture in people.
• Effects of Community Policing Upon Fear of Crime The purpose of the article aimed at identifying the intervening factors in relation to how people perceive community policing and decrease of criminal threat and anxieties among citizens; therefore, the two researchers aimed to address […]
• The Effects of Campus Shootings on Fear of Crime on Campus This study focuses on investigating the impacts of shootings on fear of crime on campus. First, there is a relationship between campus shootings and fear on crime.
• “Childbirth Fear and Sleep Deprivation in Pregnant Women” by Hall To further show that the information used is current, the authors have used the APA style of referencing which demand the naming of the author as well as the year of publication of the article/book […]
• Culture, Gaze and the Neural Processing of Fear Expressions The paper has a cross-cultural setting and this justifies the appeal to an earlier authoritative study that compared the cultural experience to the expression of basic emotions.
• Theory of Fear as a Part of Public Policy As Machiavelli points out, fear is an integral part of the policy of a prince, in case it bites not his royal majesty, but the people of the state. And since that certainly means a […]
• Abnormal Psychology: Nature of Fear There is a group of disorders which share obvious symptoms and features of fear and anxiety and these are known as anxiety disorders.
• Fear in News and Violence in Media In the proposed paper I intend to present the prevailing fear in American society and which has been produced by news media and the rise of a “problem frame” which is used to delineate this […]
• Edgar Allan Poe’s Fear of Premature Burial For instance, in The Tell-Tale Heart and The Black Cat the police arrive and stimulate a desire on the part of the narrator to confess his crime and undergo punishment from the state.
• Gender Inequality, Violence Against Women, and Fear in The Sopranos Thus, the major research question will be “Does The Sopranos endorse or criticize VaW through the frequent depiction of the scenes of cruelty?” The hypothesis of the research paper will be “The portrayal of VaW […]
• Technophobes and Their Fear of Technology Technophobes assume that they will whether be laid off by the company or will have to commit to continuous learning, which to many people, is a big challenge on its own.
• Patient’s Dental Fear: Managing Anxiety In order to find out the most effective ways to cope with the patient’s dental fear, one might consider those methods which will be applicable in accordance with the state of a client.
• Navigating Leadership Challenges: Insights from Erica Suzman’s Journey The particular case that Erica has to deal with is the case of Royal Collins, a fourth-grader who has problems in his family and often demonstrates misbehavior at school.
• Psychological Science: Fear of Heights in Infants The article ‘Fear of Heights in Infants?’ by Adolph et al.shows that the conventional belief is a myth and provides an alternative explanation as to why infants avoid falling off the edge.
• Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and Social Media Usage The first hypothesis, for instance, is that the greater the number of social media platforms used regularly, the higher the level of FoMO a person will experience.
• Overcoming Fear of Failure Consequently, this essay evaluates the roles of research practitioners on how fear of failure generates and the significance of their research in the websites.
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• Sociological Book “The Culture of Fear” by Barry Glassner The book “The Culture of Fear” presents many examples of the sources of fear in the United States. The peddlers of panic in the country inflate statistics to pursue their causes and goals.
• Dissecting the American Society: Baltimore, Fear and the Fight for Life Despite the fact that the citizens of Baltimore are also partially responsible for the moral decomposition of the city, the society and the prejudices that it produces also seem to have had a hand in […]
• “Freedom from Fear” by David M. Kennedy Whereas the latter omission may be judged bitterly by critiques of this book, it is interesting to note that the era of the Great Depression has been dramatically discussed by the author to the best […]
• Critical Analyses of the Climate of Fear Report From Southern Poverty Law Center Following the murder of Marcelo Lucero in the Suffolk County, the federal government initiated an investigation to establish the foundations of the practice and pattern of hate crimes against the undocumented immigrants.
• Fear and Trembling by Soren Kierkegaard: Passage Analysis To a great extent, this feeling belittles a human being, and in the long term, this emotion can only lead to the bitterness of the individual who is a subject of pity.
• Fear Appeals in Advertising Fear appeals work when advertisers present a moderate amount of fear and a solution to the problem is present in the advertisement. A thorough elaboration of fear may interfere with the communication of the intended […]
• Fear vs. Courage On the other hand, the goodies that ensue from being obedient form the basis of his courage to adhere to set rules and do the will of his authorities.
• Summary of the Article “Should We Fear Derivatives?” It is necessary to become more attentive to the use of derivatives, to follow the development of derivatives, and to study the peculiarities of each derivative’s type in order to use them properly.
• Hopes and Fears in Regard to the “Network Society” On the other hand, the importance of mass media and communication means has led to prevailing role of computers and other instant messaging devices over personal communication, and the resulting depersonalization of human relations.
• The Culture of Fear The culture of fear is not new: it continues to breed with the sustaining efforts of the opportunistic politicians seeking votes from the public by playing on people’s emotions through mass media.
• Embracing the Entire Globe: Globalization Is not to Be Feared! Despite the fact that globalization is designed to reunite people, restoring their economical, political and personal links with one another, there are certain suspicions that the effect of globalization can possibly harm the ethnicity and […]
• The Pianist: When the Mercy Comes Where Angels Fear to Trod Among them, there is the film called The Pianist, a winner of the Palme d’Or on the Cannes Festival and the movie that has raised a great stir among the audience, them regarding the film […]
• Fear and Trembling in Las Vegas In the book “Fear and Trembling in Las Vegas”, the author takes his readers through their experience in the chase of the American Dream.
• Machiavelli’s Claim to Be Either Feared or Loved In describing a leader’s demonstration of his personal skills and knowledge for the attainment of the state’s good, Machiavelli focuses the importance of statesmanship.
• Aerophobia or Fear of Flying The main aim of the careful explanation of the positive reasons of recovering from the condition is to enable the victim to have a feeling of absolute calmness as the session winds up and to […]
• Phil Barker: What Is Fear? According to the author, there is some form of fear that is understandable and advantageous to an individual while there is also some fear that accounts for conflicts that result in war.
• The Movie Tarnished as a Threat: Did They Fear Egoism, Altruism or What Hid in Between? Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that the movie gives a good example of what such people’s traits as egoism and altruism can lead to, once they have been too exaggerated.
• The Fears Within: What Do You See in the Mirror? Without thinking much of what she should take with her, or where the trip would take her, Cassie had bought the tickets and soon was flying away to the islands where the world would be […]
• Fear associated with sexuality issues in society This essay has shown how sexuality particularly in Africa is an issue that has for a long time served to propagate the fear of different people.
• Fear’s Psychological Aspects The controls and the fearful research participants were quicker in finding a target that was fear relevant, which the research group did not fear.
• SARS: It’s as Bad as We Feared but Dared Not Say The cornerstone of the study is the article written by Jennifer Eagleton wherein she described not only the SARS outbreak in Hong Kong in 2003 but also the way the media dealt with the crisis […]
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Essay on Fear

Students are often asked to write an essay on Fear in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Fear

Understanding fear.

Fear is a basic human emotion that alerts us to the presence of danger. It is fundamental to our survival, making us respond quickly when we sense a threat.

Fear’s Role

Fear helps us make decisions that protect us from harm. It triggers our ‘fight or flight’ response, preparing our bodies to either confront or escape danger.

Overcoming Fear

Fear can be overcome by understanding and facing it. When we challenge our fears, we learn to control them, reducing their impact on our lives.

The Positive Side of Fear

Fear can also be positive, motivating us to push beyond our comfort zones, leading to personal growth and achievement.

250 Words Essay on Fear

Fear is an innate emotional response to perceived threats. It is evolutionarily wired into our brains, acting as a survival mechanism that alerts us to danger and prepares our bodies to react. While fear can be a beneficial response, it can also be debilitating when it becomes chronic or irrational.

The Physiology of Fear

Fear triggers a cascade of physiological responses, including the release of adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones prepare the body for the ‘fight or flight’ response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose levels. This process, while crucial for survival in threatening situations, can lead to health problems if sustained over a long period.

Fear and the Mind

Psychologically, fear can be both a conscious and subconscious experience. It can be based on real threats or imagined ones, leading to anxiety disorders and phobias. Fear can also influence decision-making, often leading to risk-averse behavior. Understanding the psychological aspects of fear is essential for effective mental health treatment.

Overcoming fear involves recognizing and confronting it. Techniques such as cognitive behavioral therapy, exposure therapy, and mindfulness-based stress reduction can be effective. These strategies aim to change the thought patterns that lead to fear and teach coping mechanisms to manage fear responses.

Fear in Society

Fear also plays a significant role in society, influencing politics, economics, and social interactions. It can be used as a tool of manipulation, or it can drive societal change. Recognizing the societal implications of fear is crucial for fostering a more understanding and empathetic society.

In conclusion, fear is a complex emotion with profound impacts on individuals and society. Understanding its mechanisms and implications can help us navigate our fears and use them as catalysts for growth.

500 Words Essay on Fear

Introduction.

Fear is a universal human experience, an essential part of our biological makeup that has evolved over millions of years. It is a complex emotion that can be both protective and paralyzing, serving as a warning signal for danger while also potentially hindering personal growth and exploration. This essay explores the multifaceted nature of fear, its psychological implications, and its role in shaping human behavior and society.

The Biological Basis of Fear

Fear is fundamentally rooted in our biology. It is a response triggered by the amygdala, a small, almond-shaped structure in the brain that processes emotional stimuli. When we perceive a threat, the amygdala activates the body’s fight-or-flight response, leading to physiological changes such as increased heart rate, rapid breathing, and heightened alertness. This response is adaptive and has been crucial for human survival, allowing us to react quickly to potential threats.

The Psychological Aspect of Fear

Psychologically, fear is a multifaceted emotion with wide-ranging implications. It can be both acute, as in the immediate response to a threat, and chronic, as in the long-term fear associated with anxiety disorders. Fear can also be learned through conditioning or observation, which explains why different individuals may have different fear responses to the same stimulus.

Fear and Society

On a societal level, fear can be both a unifying and a divisive force. It can bring people together in the face of a common threat, but it can also be exploited to manipulate public opinion and justify oppressive policies. Fear can lead to stereotyping and discrimination, as individuals or groups are scapegoated as threats to societal safety and order.

Overcoming fear involves recognizing and understanding it. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is one effective method, as it helps individuals reframe their fearful thoughts and gradually expose themselves to feared situations. Mindfulness and meditation can also be beneficial, allowing individuals to stay present and focused rather than getting caught up in fearful thoughts.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Writing About Fears and Phobias

Fear is a complicated emotion that involves pronounced emotional, physiological, and behavioral elements. To write fear well means you’re going to need to address each of those elements, while also taking into consideration the character’s personal history and why their fears developed. 

Like any of the major emotions, fear has a way of creeping into stories of just about every genre. If you’re writing a romance, you may have a character feel afraid of rejection as they plan to profess their love. If you’re writing something with action or horror elements, a character may encounter another person who poses a threat to their safety. In any story, however, a character may be afraid of bees or heights, or other things they could encounter at any time. If you can’t properly convey the feeling of fear in these situations, an otherwise good scene could end up feeling very shallow. 

What is the Character Afraid Of?

There are two major types of fear: rational and irrational. 

• Rational fears are fears that make sense, such as being afraid of death or something that could cause serious bodily harm. In most cases, rational fears arise from genuine dangers; if there’s a good reason to be afraid of something, then it’s a rational fear to have. 
• Irrational fears are fears that don’t make sense, and they vary from person to person. Someone might be afraid of clowns, even though clowns pose no real danger to anyone’s personal safety. Other examples are fear of worms, cats, holes, or ghosts. In other words, if there’s no reason to be afraid of something, and yet someone is afraid of it anyway, then that fear is irrational. 

Of these two, the one you’re going to need to think about the most is irrational fears —otherwise known as phobias . Everyone is afraid of suffering or dying, so that’s not as important to consider right away. Rather, consider what things your character is afraid of that sets them apart from their peers. Are they afraid of large bodies of water? Of getting lost? Of mushrooms?

Keep in mind that phobias are a type of character flaw. Character flaws exist to add depth to a plot by creating obstacles for a character to contend with or overcome, as well as allowing readers a deeper understanding of the character’s past and personality. If you give your characters a phobia, but they never encounter what they are afraid of in the story itself, then there is no real reason to give them that phobia in the first place. 

For more information on how to deal with character flaws in your story, check out How to Create Complex Flaws for Characters .

Why is the Character Afraid?

Now that you’re thinking about what your character is afraid of, you need to also start considering why they’re afraid of that—as well as how you can use that fear to your advantage in the narrative. 

As we’ve discussed above, many fears are innate or entirely rational. In that case, the answer to the question of why the character is afraid of something would be very straightforward. No one wants to be maimed or killed or otherwise put in harm’s way. Other completely understandable fears include getting lost, losing a loved one, or getting sick. But what about when a character’s fears are not so easily explained? 

Many fears result from past experiences. If someone is afraid of dogs, it may be because they were bitten by a dog in the past. If someone is afraid of clowns, it could be because someone they looked up to as a kid was also afraid of clowns, and they learned to be afraid too. You don’t need to do a lot of work to tie the character’s phobias to their backstory, but you should at least consider the origin of these fears so you can make their reactions to them deeper and more meaningful. 

Fears are complex, however, and can arise for a number of reasons. Not all fears have an easily identifiable cause, and others could have deep psychological explanations. Different people can be afraid of the same thing for entirely different reasons. For example, someone may fear large crowds because of the noise, while someone else may be afraid of crowds because of how easy it would be to get lost in a crowd, whereas another person may fear crowds because of the potential social demands of being around many other people. Other things, such as a person’s neurotype , can influence the way they interpret their surroundings and contextualize their experience too. 

Fears are more impactful if there is depth to the way they are experienced. If your characters have deep and meaningful reasons for being afraid of something, you need to clue readers in to the complex emotions and memories at play. 

Writing about “Fight or Flight”

“Fight or flight” is a phrase used to describe the physiological response a person experiences as a result of being afraid. Fight or flight, also known as “acute stress response,” causes the release of adrenaline and several other changes that allow a person to react quickly to a threat. 

Because of this response, the character experiencing acute stress may also experience:

• Dilated pupils
• Flushed face
• Trembling 
• Shallow breathing
• Nausea 
• Chills 
• Rapid heart rate

However, although the physiological reaction to fear is universal, the behavioral reaction is not. There are four major types of reactions to threats that a person can exhibit, though there are variations within each category as well. These different reactions are known as:

• Fight: This type of reaction is characterized by a person becoming aggressive and standing their ground as if to physically fight off a threat. However, this reaction can be triggered even when there is no physical threat to actually fight. 
• Flight: This type of reaction is characterized by a person attempting to flee or hide. They may attempt to hide behind another person, run away, or cover their face. 
• Freeze: This type of reaction is characterized by a person freezing up in the face of fear, often becoming incapable of moving or making a decision on their own. Like a kind of paralysis, this prevents a person from moving away from the threat in favor of not being noticed by it. 
• Fawn: This type of reaction is characterized by a person trying to prevent a threat from occurring in the first place by being compliant with whatever or whoever is making them afraid. It is most common in survivors of abuse, who are used to trying to appease an abuser to prevent more abuse from taking place. However, it can also be triggered in other situations where the fear results from another person, rather than an animal, concept, or situation. 

Of course, a character can experience different reactions in different situations. If they are confronted by a wild animal, their instinct may be to freeze, while if they are spooked by an actor in a haunted house attraction, their reaction may be to fight the poor employee in the ghost costume.

A character’s personality, and their experiences with each individual trigger, is going to help determine how they respond to fear at a given moment. In addition to that, other environmental factors can influence how a person reacts to fear. When alone, a person may flee, but if they are with others, they may be more inclined to stay and fight. Take a look at the setting, the object of the character’s fear, the other characters present in the scene, and any other factors to help you determine the way a character will respond. 

The Body Language of Fear

As with any emotion, it is almost always better to “ show, don’t tell ” when it comes to writing about fear. 

This is probably a phrase you’ve heard a million times before, but if you want a refresher, you can check out Show, Don’t Tell: What It Is and How to Use It (With Examples) .

One of the easiest ways to utilize the principle of “show, don’t tell” is to rely on body language. The way a character moves and speaks can indicate how they are feeling without you having to tell readers “they are scared.” However, the body language exhibited by a character who’s afraid of something is going to depend on their reaction to that fear (fight, flight, freeze, or fawn). 

Here are some examples:

• Fight: A character who instinctively reacts with the “fight” response is probably going to scowl, clench their fists, and stand with a wide stance. They could also stand protectively in front of others who are around them. Alternatively, they could lash out unexpectedly, instinctively trying to beat back whatever perceived threat has them scared. 
• Flight: A character who reacts with the “flight” response may grab onto something or someone, retreat back several steps, hold their arms close to their chest, or flinch noticeably. They are also more likely to cover their face with their hands, hide behind other people or objects, shriek, scream, and cry.
• Freeze: A character who reacts with the “freeze” response will quite literally freeze where they are standing. They may stare—either at their fear or off at nothing at all—or glance around frantically, and their limbs will still likely tremble. They could also be shocked silent, or they could mumble to themself or whine. 
• Fawn: A character who reacts with the “fawn” response will appear to make themself as small as possible. They may hunch over, wrap their arms around themself, or even go down on their knees. Like the flight response, they are also more likely to cry, but they may also try to mask how they feel with a fake smile

Additionally, a character who is scared may engage in what’s known as “self-soothing behaviors” to try to calm down or ground themself. Here are some examples of what those behaviors look like:

• Rocking back and forth
• Shaking their hands
• Wrapping their arms around themself
• Chewing on their lip
• Clasping their hands together tightly
• Gripping someone or something tightly
• Breathing slowly and deliberately 
• Clenching their jaw
• Fidgeting 
• Picking at their fingernails
• Holding their breath

For more information on how to use body language to cue readers in to how a character is feeling, make sure to check out Writing Body Language: Bringing Your Characters to Life next! 

Using Fear to Reveal More About a Character

The way a character reacts to being afraid can reveal a lot about who they are. Fear is great at revealing a person’s true colors, and betraying elements of their personality and past that they otherwise would not discuss. It’s also not uncommon for people to behave seemingly out of character when they are afraid. For example, someone who is ordinarily tough may become timid and quiet when they are scared, while someone who is ordinarily skittish could behave courageously under pressure. A person who is ordinarily very calm and collected could reveal a more aggressive side of themself when they are exposed to something they fear. 

You can also use a character’s fears to give readers subliminal context to that character’s backstory. If a character is afraid of people yelling, that could indicate they have experienced abuse in their past, without you having to explain that explicitly. 

Just by planning ahead a little, you can use fear to reveal many things about a character’s true personality, the way they think, and what they could be hiding.

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Expository Essay: When Does A Fear Become A Phobia?

It would be fair to say that there are plenty of things in the world that are scary. With nearly 7.5 billion people currently living on the planet, you can pretty much assume that there is at least one person in the world who shares the same kinds of fears as you do, whether they are completely common or much more unusual. Fear is a completely normal emotional state that occurs in humans when they feel as if they are in danger. However, what about phobias? By very definition, the presence of a phobia is the fear of something ‘irrational’, something that a human being doesn’t actually need to be fearful of because it doesn’t pose any real danger to them.

Some of the most common ‘phobias’ are often things and concepts that are very understandably frightening. A fear of heights, a fear of flying in an aeroplane, a fear of swimming in deep water… These things in particular are easy to understand, easy to see why they would cause certain individuals distress: from a great height, a person can potentially fall and seriously injure themselves; from an aeroplane, the prospect of crash landing can be overwhelming; and in deep water, the potential to lose energy and one’s ability to swim is a real concern. There are indeed proper Latin names for these phobias, but in lieu of their tangible dangers, it could be argued that they are not strictly phobias but simply rational fears that are perfectly acceptable to harbour. Of course, the state of a fear can often determine whether you are experiencing a ‘phobia’ or not. For example, it can be perfectly normal to be nervous whilst taking a flight, but if you are a person who cannot even stand the sight of a plane in the air, let along entertain the prospect of travelling in one, then perhaps your own emotions are what justify the phobia classification.

For somebody to be classed as having a phobia of something, there is generally a set of physical reactions that accompany the experience. When faced with the object of their phobia, a individual might begin to feel panic attack symptoms, a tightening of the chest, elevated heart rate, noticeable sweating, crying, all classic indicators of a body’s distress in a given situation. If you find yourself reaction in these ways to something fairly trivial, then you may will have a phobia, but again, if these symptoms are occurring from a genuine trauma, an attack perhaps, then it would not be appropriate to state that you had a phobia of being mugged in the street. This would be the type of reaction that every individual had to that particular event.

When a fear truly enters in to the realms of phobia, I believe, is when a person is experiencing those reactions in the face of something completely innocuous or unusual. Some of the most common ‘irrational’ fears for people include things like spiders, small spaces, thunder and lightning, clowns, public speaking, medicinal needles and even the fear of falling in love. Though there are obviously negative aspects of all these examples, what makes them ‘true phobias’ is that fact in and off themselves, they are not objects of concepts that are going to pose real danger to people, therefore there is no logical reason to be so fearful. There is a common belief that most phobias stem from an initial trauma that occurred, most often as a child, and that if you can trace back to that point of trauma, you can begin to rid yourself of that particular phobia to improve your quality of life.

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Fear vs. Phobia: What’s the Difference?

Fear, anxiety, and phobias have overlapping meanings and can cause confusion. people who feel they may have anxiety or phobias should be aware of the differences., article at a glance:.

There are a few things to keep in mind when considering the difference between a fear and a phobia: 

• Fear is a natural emotion that protects people from harm when they face real and imminent danger 
• A phobia is an excessive fear or anxiety related to specific objects or situations that are out of proportion to the actual danger they present
• Phobias cause significant dysfunction or discomfort due to avoidance behavior and the anxiety reaction that occurs when exposed to the phobic object or situation

Fears vs. Phobias

The difference between fear and a phobia lies in the normality of fear, versus the abnormal features of a  phobia . Phobias are characterized by:

• Persistent fear, despite being presented with evidence that the fear is unfounded
• Exposure elicits intense fear and anxiety, sometimes even a panic attack
• Irrational and unreasonable fear
• The affected individual recognizes that the fear is unfounded and excessive (except in young children)
• Powerlessness to control the intense fear

The distinction between a fear and a phobia can blur with small children.  Childhood fears  are a normal part of development. However, unlike phobias, normal childhood fears involve an ordinary fear response, have a minimal effect on daily function and resolve as the child matures.

Treatment is only required for childhood fears if they significantly impair function, cause unduly severe fear and anxiety, or persist despite the child’s development; in other words, if they cross the line and become phobias.

Why We’re Afraid: Understanding Fears

Fears are a natural part of the human make-up, which is protective of life and limb. Fear is a quality that is shared by all higher animals, as no members of any species would ever survive without a protective mechanism to anticipate and react to danger, thereby protecting themselves from harm.

The brain contains specific circuits and mechanisms for perceiving and reacting to fear. The response to fear can depend upon the situation and is divided into two broad categories:

• Fight, flight, or freeze
• Tend and befriend: turning to others for safety, and changing the situation so that it is less dangerous

Fears and phobias are not the same. Fears are a normal, protective part of our make-up. Phobias are not.

What Are Phobias?

Phobias are a type of  anxiety disorder  that is distinctly different from normal fear. Phobias are defined, according to the DSM-5 (the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition), as fear or anxiety that is persistent (even when the phobic object isn’t there), excessive and out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object of the phobia. 

Phobias occur when there is  dysfunction  in the brain circuits responsible for the fear response. They recognize non-dangerous objects or situations as imminent threats and experience excessive fear and anxiety.

Diagnostic Criteria for Different Types of Phobias

According to the DSM-5, there are three types of phobia:

• Specific phobias
• Social phobia  (now known as social anxiety disorder)

Agoraphobia

The clinical characteristics of phobias depend on the type of phobia, the degree of severity in a particular individual and the amount that it interferes with the individual’s ability to function normally. However, common to all three types of phobias is extreme fear or anxiety in response to a particular object or situation.

Specific Phobias

The DSM-5 outlines criteria for a specific phobia diagnosis:

• The fear or anxiety is about a specific object or situation
• The object of the phobia nearly always causes immediate anxiety or fear
• The phobia causes avoidance of the object or situation, or they are endured with great discomfort
• The fear or anxiety occurs at levels excessive for the actual danger posed by the phobic object or situation

As well, the diagnostic criteria for specific phobias specify that the fear, anxiety and avoidance behavior must last more than six months, cause significant distress or impairment in functioning and not be due to another mental health disorder or substance use.

There are nearly limitless possible phobias, but some common specific phobia examples are:

• Animals, especially snakes (ophidiophobia), spiders (arachnophobia) and dogs (cynophobia)
• Seeing blood (hemophobia), receiving or seeing an injection (trypanophobia)
• Loud sounds (ligyrophobia or phonophobia)
• People, such as clowns (coulrophobia)
• Situations, including enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), heights (acrophobia) and flying (aerophobia)
• Environmental, such as water (aquaphobia), thunderstorms (astraphobia), darkness (nyctophobia), tunnels and holes (trypophobia)

 Specific phobias can involve virtually anything, such as a phobia of envelopes that don’t have a company name on them (episolaphobia), pumpkins (cucurbitophobia) or silence (sedatephobia).

Specific phobias are the most common of the three types of phobias and are the most common type of anxiety disorder in the United States. Data from the  U.S. National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R)  show that the lifetime prevalence of specific phobias among American adults is 12.5%. Most people with specific phobias have more than one; on average, these individuals have at least three specific phobias.

Social Phobias

 Social phobia, also known as  social anxiety disorder , is not a specific phobia but is classified as an anxiety disorder in the DSM-5. Social phobia in the DSM-5 is renamed to social anxiety disorder to remove the common impression that it is a specific phobia. However, the criteria for social anxiety disorder and social phobia are the same.

Social phobia symptoms are based on a persistent, irrational fear of embarrassment in social situations, particularly being negatively judged by others due to visible anxiety symptoms.  Typically , people with social phobia experience intense fear or anxiety about:

• Specific social situations, especially those where they may be scrutinized by others
• Humiliation, embarrassment, and rejection due to their anxiety symptoms
• Almost any social situation

Although most people are afraid of being singled out or embarrassed in public, people with social phobia experience fear or anxiety out of proportion to the actual situation and cannot function well because of their avoidance behaviors.

Agoraphobia  is an excessive fear of having a panic attack in situations that would be embarrassing and from which escape is not possible. Agoraphobia symptoms vary from obsessively avoiding certain situations (such as crowded rooms or public transport) to the complete inability to leave home.

Agoraphobia is diagnosed by matching up the symptoms with the agoraphobia  DSM-5 criteria . Agoraphobia in the DSM-5 is listed as an anxiety disorder and is therefore not considered to be a specific phobia, despite its name. Because agoraphobia is set off by the fear of having panic attacks, it is closely associated with  panic disorder .

Difference Between Fear and Anxiety

Much like the difference between fear and phobia, the difference between fear vs. anxiety is also based on natural and functional versus excessive and dysfunctional. Fear is an emotional reaction to a specific, real danger, while anxiety is an intense fear that may be triggered by a stimulus that is excessive, unpredictable and unfocused. Anxiety may persist long after the trigger, if any, is removed.

Fear, phobias, and anxiety fit together because a phobia may cause fear and anxiety.

Treating Phobias

The more disruptive a phobia is to an affected individual, the more likely they are to seek treatment. For example, someone who has a phobia of clowns (coulrophobia) may find it easy to simply avoid clowns and may not find bothering with treatment to be worthwhile. On the other hand, someone with a fear of flying (aerophobia) who has a job that requires travel may seek treatment urgently.

The first choice for  phobia treatment  involves overcoming fear and reducing phobic avoidance behaviors through exposure therapy. With  exposure therapy , affected individuals are exposed to their phobic object or situation is gradually increasing amounts until the situation or object no longer elicits the excessive fear response. They are taught techniques for calming themselves and dealing with anxiety.

For exposure therapy to work, the individuals must remain in the phobic situation until their anxiety decreases. As well, they are not cured; they often have to continue with exposure on a regular, ongoing basis. This can be done as self-exposure.

A  large body of evidence  supports exposure-based therapy as one of the most effective treatments for specific phobias. Psychotherapy and medication use have been shown to add little benefit to exposure therapy alone. However,  benzodiazepine medications  are sometimes used on a situational basis, such as prior to boarding a flight for those with aerophobia.

If you are affected by phobia and are using substances to cope,  The Recovery Village  can help. Please  contact us  for a confidential discussion with one of our representatives.

Garcia, René. “ Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias. ” Learning & Memory, September 2017. Accessed June 20, 2019

Heimberg, Richard; Hofmann, Stefan; Liebowitz, Michael; et al. “ Social anxiety disorder in DSM-5. ” Depression and Anxiety, 2014. Accessed June 20, 2019.

Leppma, Monica; Szente, Judit; Brosch, Matthew. “ Advancements in addressing children’s […]and recommendations. ” The Professional Counselor, March 2015. Accessed June 20, 2019.

National Institute of Mental Health. “ Anxiety disorders. ” July 2018. Accessed June 20, 2019.

National Institute of Mental Health. “ Specific phobia. ” November 2017. Accessed June 20, 2019.

Singh, Jarnail; Singh Janardhan. “ Treatment options for the specific phobias. ” International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, May-June 2016. Accessed June 20, 2019.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). “ Impact of the DSM-IV to DSM-5 changes on[…]om DSM-IV to DSM-5]. ” June 2016. Accessed June 19, 2019.

University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry. “ Social anxiety disorder. ” Accessed June 20, 2019.

University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry. “ Specific phobias. ” Accessed June 20, 2019.

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32 Ways To Write About Fear

In this post, we have included 32 things for you to consider when you write about fear .

One of our most popular posts on Writers Write is  37 Ways To Write About Anger . We thought we would look at interesting ways to write about other emotions, including:

• 43 Ways To Write About Love
• 29 Ways To Write About Happiness
• 40 Ways To Write About Empathy
• 37 Ways To Write About Grief

In this post, we look at writing about fear .

How do we write about fear in an authentic way?

Fear is a vital response for human beings. If we didn’t feel fear, we couldn’t protect ourselves from threats. Our bodies and brains are wired to treat threats as life-threatening. This triggers an extreme fight-flight-or-freeze response.

Our fears are not solely dependent on instinctive responses. They are also shaped by our societies and cultures, which teach people when to fear and how much to fear.

Sometimes, our fear is unnecessary and we avoid doing things that could be beneficial to us. Sometimes, facing danger can result in lingering  responses that trigger us to act in a certain way, even when the risk is gone.

The same is true for the characters we create. When we write about fearful characters, we should remember to write about them in a realistic way.

Here are 32 things to consider when you write about fear:

A)  Physical Reactions

When we are afraid, we have these reactions:

• An accelerated breathing rate
• An accelerated heart rate
• Increased muscle tension
• Goose bumps
• Increased blood glucose
• Increased white blood cells
• Sleep disturbances
• Butterflies in the stomach
• Difficulty concentrating
• Difficulty swallowing

All of these responses help us to survive by either running away or fighting. Use these physical reactions to show your character is afraid.

B)  Body Language

In your body language,  signs of fear  include:

• Hunching shoulders
• Shrinking away
• Wrapping arms around oneself
• Shaking hands
• Rocking from side to side

C)  Rational Or Irrational?

• Fear is rational. It is a reasonable response to danger.
• Phobias are irrational. They are persistent, irrational fears of a specific object, activity, or situation that leads to a compelling desire to avoid it. Read:  Writing About Characters With Phobias

D)   Ways To Create Conflict With Fear

There are three classic ways people respond to fear. They fight, flee, or freeze. Use these responses to create suspense in your book.

• Fight – choose when your characters would reasonably stay to confront the danger.
• Flight – choose when your character would reasonably choose to run away.
• Freeze – choose when your character would realistically become paralysed with fear.

Use these three responses at different times to show different aspects of your character. Use them when they suit your plot.

[TOP TIP: Use our Character Creation Kit to help you create great characters for your stories.]

E)  The Importance Of Fear In Plotting

• You can create a fearful situation to move a plot forward.
• You can literally change the setting by making characters move to avoid a threat.
• You can increase or decrease the pace of a story by introducing a threat.
• You can show another facet of the character in the way he or she reacts to fear.
• You can use it to show growth. Characters can look at the way fear made them act and change their behaviour.

Top Tip : Find out more about our  workbooks  and  online courses  in our  shop .

© Amanda Patterson

If you liked this article ,  you may enjoy

• 37 Ways To Write About Anger
• Why You Need A Premise In Fiction
• 7 Ways To Create Suspense In Your Memoir
• Body Language , Creating Characters , Description , Show Don't Tell , Writing Tips from Amanda Patterson

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Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias

Fear, which can be expressed innately or after conditioning, is triggered when a danger or a stimulus predicting immediate danger is perceived. Its role is to prepare the body to face this danger. However, dysfunction in fear processing can lead to psychiatric disorders in which fear outweighs the danger or possibility of harm. Although recognized as highly debilitating, pathological fear remains insufficiently treated, indicating the importance of research on fear processing. The neurobiological basis of normal and pathological fear reactions is reviewed in this article. Innate and learned fear mechanisms, particularly those involving the amygdala, are considered. These fear mechanisms are also distinguished in specific phobias, which can indeed be nonexperiential (implicating innate, learning-independent mechanisms) or experiential (implicating learning-dependent mechanisms). Poor habituation and poor extinction are presented as dysfunctional mechanisms contributing to persistence of nonexperiential and experiential phobias, respectively.

Fear is an emotion of anticipation that is triggered when a situation that is at risk for our safety and/or the safety of others is perceived, through either exteroceptive inputs or the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems (interoceptive inputs). To prepare the body to face this danger, these stimuli can evoke “freeze, flight, fight, fright” reactions ( Bracha 2004 ) or “tend-and-befriend” responses (such as turning to others for help or social support, or making a situation less tense, dangerous, or uncomfortable in some way) ( Taylor et al. 2000 ). At the neurobiological level, significant advances have been made in identifying fear circuits and mechanisms; dysfunctions in these circuits/mechanisms can lead to chronic psychiatric disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and various types of phobia, including specific phobias. Indeed, available treatments that aim to reduce pathological fear are associated with decreased symptom severity, but up to 40% of patients show only partial long-term benefit, while most of them fail to achieve complete remission ( Singewald et al. 2015 ).

Specific phobias are extreme and persistent fears of certain objects, situations, or activities, or persons. Additionally, people who suffer from specific phobias work hard to avoid their phobia stimuli even though they know there is no threat or danger, but they feel powerless to stop their irrational fear. Dogs, heights, tunnels, darkness, water, flying, and injuries involving blood are a few of the more common irrational fears. While PTSD is always caused by a traumatic event, specific phobia can result from either a traumatic event (experiential-specific phobia) or not (nonexperiential-specific phobia).

Nonexperiential or nonassociative specific phobia is caused and activated by stimuli that arouse fear without previous direct or indirect associative learning. Genetic, familial, environmental, or developmental factors play an important role in the development of this type of specific phobia. For instance, many children experience fear of darkness, which, in certain cases, may be sensitized. Sensitization is a form of nonassociative learning manifested by exaggerated emotional reactions to specific stimuli (e.g., nyctophobia, fear of darkness, is characterized by sensitized fear during exposure to darkness or during anticipation to darkness exposure). Sensitization may serve the functional purpose of detecting threats. At brain level, it is a stimulus-specific increase of neuronal responses. In nonexperiential phobia, it is suggested to be supported by dysfunction in “learning-independent” fear circuits (i.e., circuits that include the amygdala and drive defensive behavior without prior learning) ( Rosen et al. 2015 ). For example, in most children, darkness may activate the amygdala. However, this amygdala activation may be exaggerated (sensitized) in children who develop nyctophobia, due to the pathological changes in the excitability threshold in fear circuits. Another feature is the lack of habituation. Habituation is also a form of nonassociative learning, which is manifested by reduced emotional reactions to repeatedly presented stimuli. It may serve the functional purpose of protecting the brain from flooding with sensory information considered, with time, as irrelevant. At brain level, it is a stimulus-specific decrement of neuronal responses to repeatedly presented stimuli. For example, fear of the dark is often lost over time through repeated exposure to darkness without any harm. This may be characterized by a decrement of amygdala activation in response to repeatedly darkness exposure. A deficiency in this mechanism (i.e., amygdala habituation) may therefore contribute to the persistence of nonexperiential phobia.

Experiential-specific phobia results from an unfortunate experience. It has been suggested that its acquisition is due to classical fear conditioning, while its maintenance is due to operant fear conditioning, which, in turn, reinforces the avoidance behavior ( Tillfors 2004 ). Experimental studies show that classical fear conditioning can occur by associating the presentation of a neutral cue, like a sound, with an aversive event, like an electric shock. Following training, the presentation of the cue (or conditioned stimulus), in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, causes fear behaviors. Fear can also be acquired through other ways, including an observational conditioning, as shown in primates ( Cook et al. 1985 ; Mineka and Cook 1993 ) and in rodents ( Chen et al. 2009 ; Jeon et al. 2010 ). In observational conditioning, a subject A observes a conspecific B experiencing classical fear conditioning. Following training, the subject A displays fear behaviors when later exposed to the conditioned stimulus alone. These findings demonstrate the social transmission of fear. Interestingly, mechanisms involved in observational conditioning and those of direct classical conditioning are similar ( Mineka and Cook 1993 ). However, only studies using direct classical conditioning paradigm have largely contributed to the characterization of the circuits and mechanisms underlying fear conditioning ( LeDoux 2014 ; Maren 2015 ). Behavioral abnormalities relative to experiential-specific phobia may therefore be supported by dysfunctions in these “learning-dependent” fear circuits and mechanisms. In this case, one possible dysfunction is deficiency in extinction (i.e., a failure to acquire a reduction of conditioned response through repeated presentations of a conditioned stimulus), explaining maintenance of experiential-specific phobia.

This review focuses mainly on the involvement of the amygdala in normal innate fear and dysfunction of innate fear in nonexperiential phobia and amygdala mechanisms of classical fear conditioning and their potential involvement in experiential phobia.

Rodent and primate studies on substrates of innate fear

Evidence accumulated from animal studies and human lesion and neuroimaging data indicate that the amygdala plays a pivotal role in innate fear ( Table 1 ). For example, odors from predators are ecologically relevant stimuli used by prey animals as warnings for the presence of danger. These odors are not painful, but they have innate threat-like properties. This is also true in laboratory rodents that have been bred in animal colonies for generations without exposure to predators. Studies with adolescent ( Chan et al. 2011 ) and adult ( Dielenberg et al. 2001 ; McGregor et al. 2004 ) rats and adult mice ( Janitzky et al. 2015 ) show that exposure to a cat odor induces fear responses, which are associated with increases of the number of Fos-positive cells in the amygdala, periaqueductal gray, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the locus coeruleus. These substrates are interconnected with projections from the amygdala, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the periaqueductal gray controlling responses such as freezing ( Vianna and Brandão 2003 ; Chan et al. 2011 ). Particularly, inactivation of the prelimbic area decreases freezing and abolishes Fos expression in the periaqueductal gray ( Chan et al. 2011 ). In monkeys, fear can be assessed in laboratory by placing the animal alone in an isolated cage. An unfamiliar human enters the room, avoids any eye contact with the animal and leaves the room, and enters again, remains motionless while staring at the animal. In this second condition, animal expresses innate fear behaviors, including freezing. Based on this human intruder paradigm, it has been found that bilateral lesions of the central amygdala abolish animal fear responses ( Kalin et al. 2004 ). In a human study, it has been reported that bilateral calcification and atrophy of the amygdala is associated with impairment of the recognition of fear in facial expressions ( Adolphs et al. 1995 ). Functional magnetic resonance imaging in humans has also confirmed the involvement of the amygdala in fear, by demonstrating that viewing fearful faces activates this specific brain region ( Wright et al. 2006 ). In another study ( Mobbs et al. 2010 ), participants were placed in a neuroimaging apparatus and asked to position their foot with the shoe removed into an open-topped imminence box (they believed that they could observe, via a camera feed, the experimenter moving a live tarantula closer or further away from their foot in real time). As the tarantula was placed closer to a subject's foot, there was an increased activity in the amygdala, periaqueductal gray, and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Interestingly projections of the amygdala to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis control stress reactions involving the pituitary axis ( Crestani et al. 2013 ).

Summary of studies on the amygdala

Under resting conditions, the amygdala is inhibited by an extensive γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) network and amygdala neurons exhibit low firing rates ( Quirk and Gehlert 2003 ). The reduction of GABAergic activity is therefore required to lower the threshold for amygdala activation and facilitates amygdala activation, necessary to expression of fear. This idea is, in part, supported by a study demonstrating that injections of muscimol, a GABAA receptor agonist that increases GABAergic inhibition, into the basolateral amygdala blocks predator odor-induced fear behavior ( Müller and Fendt 2006 ). Dopamine and norepinephrine may play key roles in amygdala activation in response to predator scent. First, predator odor causes increased dopamine metabolism in the amygdala ( Morrow et al. 2000 ), which, in turn, reduces GABAergic inhibitory control ( Marowsky et al. 2005 ). Second, absorption of reboxetine, a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor that increases the levels of norepinephrine, has been reported to increase basolateral amygdala responses to fearful faces ( Onur et al. 2009 ); the norepinephrine signaling being involved in facilitation of GABAergic inhibition in the same area ( Skelly et al. 2017 ). In addition, a human pharmacological study with propranolol, a compound blocking the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine, shows that this treatment reduces basolateral amygdala reactivity ( Hurlemann et al. 2010 ), while, in rodents, it impairs unlearned fear to predatory threats ( Do Monte et al. 2008 ). Increased amygdala activity enhances, in turn, activity of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus through direct projections ( Gray et al. 1989 ). The pituitary gland is therefore activated from corticotrophin releasing hormone released by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland increases, in turn, the levels of peripheral adrenocorticotropic hormone, which stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol in primates and corticosterone in rodents). This is supported by several fear studies, both in primates and rodents. A rodent study ( Muñoz-Abellán et al. 2011 ) showed that the odor of a predator increases plasma levels of peripheral adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosterone. In monkeys, the human intruder paradigm also induces increases in plasma levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosterone and central levels of corticotrophin releasing hormone. Lesions of the central amygdala, inducing reduction in innate fear, are also accompanied by a significant decrease in levels of these hormones ( Kalin et al. 2004 ). The peripheral hormonal and autonomic responses mediated by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis play particularly adaptive roles in responding to threat from fear processing in the amygdala (and extending amygdala: the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis). The adaptive roles initiated by activation of this axis include increased cardiovascular tone, respiratory rate, and intermediate metabolism, along with inhibition of general vegetative functions such as feeding, digestion, growth, reproduction, and immunity ( Sapolsky et al. 2000 ). In addition, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis is closely linked to another axis, the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis ( Viau 2002 ), with the ability to inhibit each other ( Fenchel et al. 2015 ). For example, as shown recently in a rodent study ( Fenchel et al. 2015 ), testosterone (a product of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis) and corticosterone levels are lower and higher, respectively, in animals exposed to predator scent, while there are higher and lower, respectively, in unexposed animals. However, although testosterone has repeatedly been shown to have anxiolytic properties in rodents, findings in primates are more mixed. In monkeys, Suarez-Jimenez et al. (2013) reported that animals exposed to an unfamiliar human staring directly at them (i.e., the human intruder paradigm) exhibited less anxious behaviors when given a treatment lowering testosterone levels.

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxotryptamine (5-HT), has also been examined given its involvement in a range of functions including regulation of emotional states such as mood and anxiety. The amygdala receives dense serotonergic projections from the dorsal raphe nucleus and expresses multiple subtypes of 5-HT receptors ( Sadikot and Parent 1990 ). Studies with 5-HT knockout mice have shown a reduction in binding density and/or function of 5-HT 1A receptors in several brain areas, including the amygdala (e.g., Li et al. 2000 ) and facilitation of anxiety-like behaviors (for review, see Adamec et al. 2008 ). Importantly, administration of vilazodone, an agonist of these 5-HT receptors, following predator stress interferes with the development of anxiety-related changes ( Adamec et al. 2004 ), supporting the involvement of reduced 5-HT activity in the amygdala in mechanisms of innate fear. It has been suggested that 5-HT inhibits fear circuits in the amygdala likely through local action on GABAergic interneurons ( Lee et al. 2013 ).

Potential mechanism of persistent fear in nonexperiential-specific phobia

Brain circuits of fear are also activated in phobic patients, but to significantly greater levels than in healthy individuals. For example, as seen above, the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis display increases in activity in response to a threat stimulus. In a recent study, it has been reported that phobic patients have significantly higher activation of these areas than controls in response to threat ( Münsterkötter et al. 2015 ). Moreover, the same authors found enhancement of functional connectivity between the two neuroanatomical substrates in phobic subjects ( Münsterkötter et al. 2015 ). Other neuroanatomical substrates that show an exaggerated anxiety response to threat, as shown recently with spider pictures in spider phobics, are the mid insula, dorsal anterior cingulate, and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex ( Zilverstand et al. 2017 ). Another recent study has also shown a decrease in parietal processing in specific phobia, suggesting attentional avoidance of affective stimuli ( Klahn et al. 2017 ).

Studies on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), a class of drugs that enhance 5-HT, have indicated that these drugs are effective for phobias ( Cassano et al. 2002 ). Interestingly, improvement of specific phobias with SSRI is accompanied by decreased regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala ( Fredrikson and Furmark 2003 ), revealing that low levels of 5-HT in the amygdala may be involved in the pathophysiology of phobia. This is confirmed by a positron emission tomography study showing a significantly lower 5-HT 1A receptor binding in the amygdala and insula ( Lanzenberger et al. 2007 ).

As seen for normal fear, phobias are also characterized by changes affecting the dopaminergic and GABAergic systems. This is supported, in part, by the fact that patients with Parkinson's disease, which is associated with dopamine dysfunction, seem to have increased risk for developing phobia ( Richard 2005 ). It has also been found that monoamine oxidase inhibitors, a potentially dopamine-enhancing class of drugs, are effective in treating phobia ( Ipser et al. 2008 ). Regarding GABAergic changes, treatment with GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine, a potentially GABA-enhancing drug, is also effective in treating phobia ( Dunlop et al. 2007 ), indicating reduction of GABAergic tonic inhibition in the amygdala of phobic patients. Animal studies have shown that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex inhibits the amygdala by activating intra-amygdala GABAergic interneurons ( Paré et al. 2004 ). Decreased GABAergic activity may, in addition, result from reduction of this down-regulation of amygdala activity. Indeed, phobic patients are characterized by diminished responses in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex during provocation of phobic reactions ( Hermann et al. 2007 , 2009 ). In another study, the authors ( Kerr et al. 2012 ) found that phobic patients exhibit greater activity in the same cortical area during the anticipation of phobic stimuli under conditions of control over stimulus presentation when compared with conditions without any control. In addition, this study also confirms the inhibition of the amygdala by the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.

Sensitization-associated increased amygdala activity is a key amygdala mechanism contributing to fear sensitization in nonexperiential phobia. Direct support of this idea comes from animal studies. For example, predator stress can induce long-lasting enhancement of right amygdala afferent and efferent neural transmission, which likely mediates behavioral effects ( Adamec et al. 2005 ). Repeated predator exposure (in a procedure allowing animals to see, hear, and smell each other, but without any physical contact) induces long-lasting sensitization of basolateral amygdala norepinephrine receptors via a corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1-dependent mechanism, as revealed by double-immunofluorescence labeling on days 11 and 28 after stress ( Rajbhandari et al. 2016 ). In other words, norepinephrine sensitization may provoke reduced GABAergic inhibition control, which may result in both reduction in amygdala activation threshold and hyperexcitability of the amygdala by threat stimuli. This dysfunction may be part of mechanisms that provoke persistent fear in nonexperiential phobia ( Table 2 ).

Summary of potential amygdala mechanisms of fear alteration in specific phobias

Innate fear of stimuli such as animals, darkness, and heights is frequent in children. These innate fears gradually diminish with time, with repeated, nontraumatic exposure to the feared object or situation, a phenomenon known as habituation. However, children with poor habituation are at high risk of developing nonexperiential-specific phobias. In laboratory, freezing habituation can be observed in rats exposed, over a period of days, to a cat odor (e.g., Dielenberg and McGregor 1999 ), but there are also contradictory data (e.g., Wallace and Rosen 2000 ). Studies in healthy humans ( Fischer et al. 2003 ; Herry et al. 2007 ; Denny et al. 2014 ) and mice ( Herry et al. 2007 ) indicate that habituation is associated with decreased activity in the amygdala. In other word, persistence of amygdala activity characterizes poor habituation. Nonexperiential phobia may therefore be characterized by reduced amygdala habituation, responsible of fear persistence in patients with this type of phobia ( Table 2 ).

Animal studies on mechanisms of fear conditioning

One of the most significant properties of the nervous system is its ability to modify its structure and function in response to experience. At the synaptic level, this ability is characterized by synaptic plasticity (i.e., activity-dependent changes of the strength of synaptic transmission). Synaptic plasticity, such as long-term potentiation (LTP), which is an increase in synaptic efficacy, at appropriate synapses during memory formation is believed to be both necessary and sufficient for storage of information ( Garcia 2001 ; Lynch 2004 ), including fear conditioning ( LeDoux 2014 ; Maren 2015 ).

In fear conditioning, innate fear response (e.g., freezing) can be converted into learned response when fear is evoked (for instance with a footshock application) during or immediately after the presentation of a neutral stimulus (e.g., a sound). The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (an aversive stimulus) because it is capable of evoking by itself the fear response (freezing). This example of classical fear conditioning corresponds to auditory fear conditioning. It is the only example that is reviewed below to examine mechanisms of fear conditioning.

The amygdala, which is critical for innate fear, is also critical for auditory fear conditioning, as revealed in rats with lesions targeting the lateral nucleus ( LeDoux et al. 1990 ; Sheng et al. 2015 ). It is now well established that during training, information from the auditory stimulus and information from the nociceptive stimulus (footshock application) converge onto the basolateral amygdala complex (for a recent review, see Silva et al. 2016 ). Excitatory auditory inputs from the medial geniculate body are directly and indirectly, through the auditory cortex, conveyed to the amygdala. Regarding excitatory nociceptive inputs from the spinal and trigeminal dorsal horn, they seem to reach the amygdala through two pathways: via a spino-thalamic tract ( Bienvenu et al. 2015 ) and via a spino-periaqueductal–thalamic pathway ( Johansen et al. 2010 ). In the search of mechanisms at the basis of fear conditioning, it is therefore possible to place a stimulation electrode in the auditory thalamus or in the bundle of fibers connecting the auditory thalamus to the amygdala and a recording electrode in the basolateral complex of the amygdala, and more specifically in the lateral nucleus. Two major discoveries derive from this approach. First, LTP is induced in this pathway by means of high-frequency stimulation ( Humeau et al. 2007 ). Second, auditory fear conditioning also induces LTP-like changes in the same pathway ( Sigurdsson et al. 2007 ). Given that high-frequency stimulation and fear conditioning induce similar long-term enhancement of synaptic efficacy in the thalamo–amygdala pathway, LTP and LTP-like changes may share similar cellular and molecular mechanisms, which may underlie the basis of fear learning and memory. The first mechanism is the increase of glutamate release with high-frequency stimulation. Fear conditioning also provokes an increase in glutamate release in the amygdala ( Venton et al. 2006 ). The second mechanism related to the application of high-frequency stimulation is an increase of postsynaptic depolarization, which can also be seen with fear conditioning ( Rogan et al. 1997 ). In both cases, the depolarization results from the increase of amount of glutamate-evoked current that flows into the postsynaptic cell through α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs). Among AMPARs, the subunit glutamate receptor 1 is involved in AMPAR-dependent amygdala LTP and fear conditioning, as demonstrated in a study using knockout mice ( Humeau et al. 2007 ). The third mechanism is calcium entry into postsynaptic cells, through several channels, and mostly N -methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). LTP can require NMDARs or L-type VGCCs depending on electrical stimulation paradigm ( Bauer et al. 2002 ). Blockade of NMDARs alters both short-term and long-term fear memory, while blockade of L-type VGCCs impairs only long-term fear memory. The rise in calcium in the postsynaptic cell triggers, in turn, a cascade of intracellular processes that ultimately induce synaptic enhancement. This includes an increase of the autophosphorylated (active) form of Ca 2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in lateral amygdala spines ( Rodrigues et al. 2004 ). Interestingly, intra-amygdala infusion of a CaMKII inhibitor blocks short-term fear memory during conditioning, but not already established memory ( Rodrigues et al. 2004 ). In addition, the same treatment also impairs LTP induction ( Rodrigues et al. 2004 ). The other intracellular cascade resulting from the rise of intracellular calcium is the production of retrograde massagers, such as nitric oxide. Disrupting nitric oxide signaling also results in marked suppression of LTP induction in the lateral amygdala and impairment of long-term fear memory ( Schafe et al. 2005 ). Nitric oxide acts as a retrograde messenger turning on presynaptic signaling cascades through activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase and cGMP-dependent protein kinase. As for nitric oxide, disruption of cGMP-dependent protein kinase, and particularly its type I isoform, causes a marked reduction of freezing behavior to a conditioned tone and a decrease of LTP in the lateral amygdala ( Paul et al. 2008 ). Considering that most of these studies were done with a transient form of LTP in the lateral amygdala, while fear conditioning may require enduring changes for long-term memory, it is conceivable that there is another form of LTP, which is enduring. This enduring form exists and depends on gene expression and on new protein synthesis, through stimulation of the phosphorylation of cAMP response element-binding proteins (CREB) in amygdala cells ( Huang et al. 2000 ). By manipulating CREB function in the lateral amygdala principal neurons in mice, it has been shown that neurons with high levels of CREB have more dendritic spines, while neurons with low CREB function have relatively fewer spines compared with control neurons ( Sargin et al. 2013 ). Poor fear memory characterizes mice with low CREB function ( Sargin et al. 2013 ), confirming the critical role of CREB in fear conditioning.

Potential mechanisms of persistent fear in experiential-specific phobia

Studies on the conditioning of fear in phobias indicate that fear is high in phobic compared with nonphobic subjects. However, there are studies indicating exaggerated general conditionability in phobia ( Lissek et al. 2008 ; Vriends et al. 2012 ), while in other studies there was either no general conditionability ( Hermann et al. 2002 ; Schweckendiek et al. 2011 ) or exaggerated conditionability only with phobia-related conditioned stimuli ( Schweckendiek et al. 2011 ). The authors also found that phobic subjects display higher amygdala activation in response to the phobia-related conditioned stimulus than to the nonphobia-related conditioned stimulus. In another study, the authors ( Vriends et al. 2012 ) found a stronger conditioning effect in flying phobia. Particularly, compared with healthy controls, patients with flying phobia rated conditioned stimuli more frightening. Lissek et al. (2008) , using facial expressions as socially relevant stimuli, but no disorder-unrelated unconditioned stimulus, found that only phobic patients, when compared with healthy controls, develop conditioned fear. In an earlier study ( Hermann et al. 2002 ), aversive conditioning was performed using neutral faces as conditioned stimulus and an unpleasant odor as unconditioned stimulus. Despite the lack of an enhanced conditionability in the phobic group, extinction (i.e., a learning process in which new non-fear memory traces are established, which inhibit the old fear memories) was impaired ( Hermann et al. 2002 ).

Although the above studies do not all demonstrate an enhancement of conditionability in phobia, when this enhancement is present (e.g., Vriends et al. 2012 ), it is suggested here that it may be caused by metaplasticity in the amygdala. Metaplasticity is defined as a dynamic regulation of synaptic plasticity thresholds in a neuronal population, resulting, for example, in exaggerated or inhibited LTP ( Garcia et al. 1997 ). Metaplasticity tunes the synapses to undergo changes that are necessary prerequisites for memory storage under physiological ( Garcia 2001 ) or pathological ( Garcia 2002a , b ) conditions. Stress is known as a condition that provokes metaplasticity in several brain regions (e.g., in the hippocampus: Garcia et al. 1997 ; in the amygdala: Rodríguez Manzanares et al. 2005 ). In the amygdala, metaplasticity associated with stress results from an elevation in glucocorticoid levels ( Karst et al. 2010 ), which, in turn, increases the norepinephrine release in the amygdala ( McReynolds et al. 2010 ). Of note, norepinephrine is released in the basolateral amygdala from fibers from two structures that are activated by the stress condition: the nucleus of the solitary track and locus coeruleus ( de Quervain et al. 2009 ). In turn, norepinephrine causes a reduction in GABA neurotransmission ( Tully et al. 2007 ). The amygdala, particularly its basolateral complex, is characterized by a high density of GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor binding sites. GABAA receptors operate as gated chloride ion channels, causing influx of negatively charged chloride ions into the neuron, leading to reduce the chance of a successful action potential occurring. In other words, increases of glucocorticoid levels reduce GABAergic inhibition, via norepinephrine action ( Liu et al. 2014 ). Consequently, stress, by altering GABAergic inhibition in amygdala, induces a reduction of the synaptic plasticity threshold that results in exaggerated amygdala LTP ( Rodríguez Manzanares et al. 2005 ). This is also confirmed by studies showing that treatment with the benzodiazepines, which are among the most widely prescribed anxiolytic drugs, enhances GABAergic neurotransmission ( Giachero et al. 2015 ) and suppresses the effect of stress on amygdala synaptic plasticity ( Rodríguez Manzanares et al. 2005 ). The interactions between glucocorticoids and noradrenaline are summarized in Figure 1 . Particularly, in the amygdala, glucocorticoids induce metaplasticity, which facilitates fear acquisition ( Buchanan and Lovallo 2001 ; Rodríguez Manzanares et al. 2005 ) and may explain the enhancement of conditionability found in some phobic patients ( Table 2 ).

Interactions between glucocorticoids and norepinephrine (NA) in the regulation of GABAergic activity. During stress, adrenal hormones, epinephrine, and glucocorticoids, are released. Epinephrine, which does not cross the blood-brain barrier, induces the release of NA in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) by activating vagal afferents to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). NA neurons in the NTS send direct noradrenergic fibers to the BLA. NA neurons from the NTS project also to the locus coeruleus (LC), which noradrenergic fibers reach directly the BLA. Glucocorticoids freely cross the blood–brain barrier and potentiate NA release in the BLA and facilitate the NA inhibitory effect on GABA interneurons in the BLA ( de Quervain et al. 2009 ). This results in the decrease of excitability threshold of the pyramidal neurons in the BLA, which release the excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate (Glu), in the central amygdala (CeA).

As seen above, the other phenomenon that characterizes phobia is poor fear extinction learning ( Hermann et al. 2002 ). It has been hypothesized that poor extinction contributes to the maintenance of anxiety disorders ( Mineka and Zinbarg 1996 ). Phobias are chronic disorders with a high rate of resistance to pharmacotherapy ( Slaap et al. 1996 ; Van Ameringen et al. 2004 ; Stein et al. 2005 ) and psychotherapy ( Van Ameringen et al. 2004 ), including exposure therapy ( Lass-Hennemann and Michael 2014 ). Exposure therapy is thought to rely on the extinction of the fear memory. Even though this extinction-based therapy is a highly successful treatment option, not all patients profit from it ( Lass-Hennemann and Michael 2014 ), showing therefore poor extinction mechanisms. Here, it is suggested that poor extinction mechanisms may include dysfunction in the serotonergic system for at least two main reasons. First, as previously mentioned, SSRI, by increasing concentrations of 5-HT in the synapse cleft, have been found effective for phobias ( Cassano et al. 2002 ). Moreover, as demonstrated with knockout mice, the ionotropic 5-HT receptor, which is expressed in limbic regions including the amygdala, is not required for the acquisition or retention of fear memory, but is essential for the extinction of conditioned fear ( Kondo et al. 2014 ). Other studies have shown that chronic treatment with fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, facilitates fear extinction ( Karpova et al. 2011 ; Popova et al. 2014 ; Gunduz-Cinar et al. 2016 ). Second, the serotonin system interacts within the amygdala with the GABAergic and endocannabinoid systems. Indeed, activation of the serotonergic system has been reported to stimulate the release of GABA in this structure ( Koyama et al. 2002 ). Similarly, activation of the serotonergic system has been found to produce a significant and selective increase in levels of anandamide, an endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors, in the basolateral amygdala ( Gunduz-Cinar et al. 2016 ). As for the serotonin system, blockade of each system (GABAergic or endocannabinoid) is known to impair fear extinction, whereas their activation facilitates fear extinction. For example, in an animal study, it has been reported that infusion of a low dose of GABAergic agonist muscimol into the basolateral amygdala complex, prior to fear extinction training, facilitates extinction learning ( Akirav et al. 2006 ). Regarding the endocannabinoid system, poor fear extinction has also been reported in knockout mice with reduced anandamide levels in the amygdala ( Marsicano et al. 2002 ; Jenniches et al. 2016 ). In other words, extinction may require activation of the serotonin system that may induce, in the basolateral amygdala, increased endocannabinoid levels and increased GABAergic activity ( Fig. 2 ).

Interactions between serotonin (5-HT) and GABAergic systems in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) during fear expression and extinction. Following fear conditioning, presentation of the conditioned cue activates glutamatergic (Glu) neurons in the lateral amygdala (LA) that project to fear neurons (F) in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). The fear neurons activate, in turn, neurons in the central amygdala (CeA) for fear expression. The LA neurons also activate a BLA cell population that expresses cholecystokinin (CCK) and establishes GABAergic synapses with extinction neurons (E) within the BLA, inhibiting therefore these extinction neurons. Consequently, extinction neurons cannot inhibit fear expression through their Glu projections to BLA interneurons containing parvalbumin (PV), which establish a GABAergic connection with the fear neurons, or through their Glu projections to intercalated cells (ITC), which send GABAergic fibers to the CeA. It is well known that endocannabinoid signaling results in retrograde inhibition of afferent neurotransmission. Interestingly, the cannabinoid type 1 receptors are located presynaptically on CCK-containing cells. However, endocannabinoid synthesis is initiated via voltage-dependent mechanisms ( Kano et al. 2009 ) and because of the inhibitory effect of CCK-containing cells on extinction neurons, endocannabinoids are not released. Here, it is hypothesized that, during extinction training, repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone, indicating safety, may induce progressive enhancement of serotonin (5-HT) release in the BLA, which may partially activate the extinction neurons, hence provoking the release of endocannabinoids. The activation of the extinction neurons may be achieved with the inhibitory effect of endocannabinoids on CCK-containing cells via their cannabinoid type 1 receptors, resulting in inhibition of fear expression.

Using single-unit recording in mice, Herry et al. (2008) demonstrated that neurons in the basolateral amygdala can be divided into distinct functional classes: fear neurons and extinction neurons. Fear neurons display a selective enhancement of activity in response to the conditioned stimulus. During extinction training, there is a progressive decrease of this activity. At synaptic plasticity level, this can be interpreted as a suppression of LTP-like changes or depotentiation. Extinction neurons exhibit, on the contrary, a progressive increase of their activity during extinction; this being interpreted here as a progressive development of LTP-like changes.

Regarding extinction training-associated depotentiation, it has already been shown that conditioning-induced LTP-like changes in the thalamo–amygdala pathway are reversed with extinction ( Kim et al. 2007 ). At the basolateral amygdala, conditioning-associated reduction of GABA levels is also reversed with extinction ( Stork et al. 2002 ). Fear extinction may require this change (increased GABA levels) to initiate depotentiation mechanisms, among which activation of NMDARs, increased calcium entry in postsynaptic cells and calcineurin Aα activation ( Zhuo et al. 1999 ), leading to internalization of AMPARs ( Kim et al. 2007 ). Therefore, another way to improve extinction, or exposure therapy in phobics, in addition to GABAergic interventions, is the use of NMDAR agonists. D-cycloserine, a partial agonist of the glycine site, is one example of NMDAR agonists that has been often tested in studies on fear extinction in rodents (e.g., Ledgerwood et al. 2003 ; Lehner et al. 2010 ) and in humans (e.g., Ressler et al. 2004 ; Smits et al. 2013 ) studies. For example, in human studies, D-cycloserine has been reported to facilitate exposure therapy in height-phobic subjects, when compared with the placebo condition ( Ressler et al. 2004 ; Smits et al. 2013 ).

Regarding extinction training-association LTP-like changes, it has also been shown that extinction is associated with a potentiation of extinction neurons projecting to GABAergic intercalated amygdala neurons that project, in turn, to the central amygdala ( Amano et al. 2010 ). Of note, the so-called extinction neurons in the basolateral amygdala correspond to pyramidal neurons that are powerfully inhibited by cholecystokinin-containing interneurons ( Marsicano et al. 2002 ). Extinction can take place only if GABA release by these interneurons is reduced (see legend of Fig. 2 ). Marsicano et al. (2002) found that low-frequency stimulation of the cholecystokinin-containing interneurons leads to a long-term reduction in the release of GABA, which, in turn, leads to less inhibition of the extinction neurons. Interestingly, the authors reported that this long-term depression of GABAergic transmission was completely blocked by the cannabinoid type 1 receptor agonist. In addition, this synaptic plasticity was observed in cannabinoid type 1 receptor-deficient mice ( Marsicano et al. 2002 ). One can suggest that during extinction training, serotonin may induce strong release of endocannabinoids that may generate long-term depression of GABAergic release by cholecystokinin-containing interneurons. This may thereby help development of LTP-like of synapses between extinction neurons and their GABAergic target cells ( Fig. 2 ).

Collectively, these data support the view that serotonergic dysfunction, which characterized phobic patients, may indirectly contribute, via the lack of activation of endocannabinoid system in the basolateral amygdala, in poor extinction that is reported in phobia.

Concluding remarks

While fear is an adaptive component of response to potentially threatening stimuli, too much or inappropriate fear accounts for chronic psychiatric disorders, including PTSD and phobias. Understanding the neurobiological basis of fear is therefore critical at elucidating the mechanisms improving treatments of these fear-related pathologies. Concerning phobias, nonexperiential, engaging innate fear, and experiential, engaging conditioned fear, disorders can be distinguished. However, so far, we know a lot about how the brain processes fear that is conditioned, while much less is known about innate fear. An increase of research on innate fear is therefore necessary.

Based on the research reviewed in this article, it appears that the amygdala is central to two phenomena that may support pathological innate fear: fear sensitization (with decreased amygdala threshold activity and potentiation of amygdala activity) and failure of fear habituation (with decreased amygdala habituation). Mechanisms of fear sensitization may contribute to decreased amygdala habituation. As current research is limited, this hypothesis is not fully supported here.

The cause of experiential phobia is attributed to some external learning experience. However, although phobia-like fears can be produced in laboratory with fear conditioning paradigms, experimental findings do not prove that in everyday life, classical fear conditioning is the cause of phobias ( Merckelbach et al. 1996 ). For example, not all people who have had fearful events go on to develop phobias ( Aitken et al. 1981 ), why? This may result from exaggerated fear conditionability, due to amygdala metaplastic changes (i.e., exaggerated LTP-like changes) in vulnerable individuals. However, not all phobic patients show exaggerated fear conditionability in laboratory experiences ( Hermann et al. 2002 ). Poor extinction, due to impairment in mechanisms of depotentiation in the amygdala of vulnerable individuals, is also hypothesized as a potential factor maintaining pathological phobia. In experiments done by Öhman (1986) , it was observed that people conditioned to angry faces showed significant resistance to extinction compared with those exposed to happy and neutral faces. So, nonphobic individuals can also present resistance to extinction.

As mentioned in the introduction, the development of experiential phobia seems to involve two stages. During the first stage, a pairing of a neutral stimulus and an aversive event results in a conditioned fear response to the neutral stimulus, which becomes a conditioned stimulus. During the second stage, the person learns that fear responses to the conditioned stimulus can be reduced by avoiding this stimulus. However, as shown in rats, strong avoidance causes resistance to extinction of classical fear conditioning ( Nachon et al. 2014 ). Mechanisms that are involved need also to be examined in future studies. It would also be good to consider, in this context, other pathologies that contribute to pathological fear, such as relapse of fear after extinction (e.g., renewal, recovery, and reinstatement).

Despite these critical remarks, poor habituation and poor extinction, support, at least in part, fear dysfunction in phobia.

Acknowledgments

I thank Professor Stephen Maren for critically reading an earlier version of this paper.

Article is online at http://www.learnmem.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/lm.044115.116 .

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Emotions & Feelings — Fear

Essays on Fear

Hook examples for fear essays, "the anatomy of fear"" hook.

"Fear is a powerful and primal emotion that has shaped human survival for millennia. Explore the intricate anatomy of fear, from its psychological triggers to its physical manifestations."

The Fear Factor in Literature and Film Hook

"Fear is a common theme in literature and cinema, captivating audiences with suspense and terror. Journey through the pages and screens of iconic horror stories and analyze the art of fear portrayal."

Facing Fear: Personal Stories Hook

"Fear can be a paralyzing force, but it can also be a catalyst for personal growth. Listen to the inspiring stories of individuals who confronted their deepest fears and emerged stronger."

Fear in the Modern World Hook

""In an era of rapid change and uncertainty, fear takes on new forms. Examine the fears that dominate the modern world, from technological anxieties to global crises, and their impact on society.""

The Psychology of Fear Hook

"Fear is deeply rooted in the human psyche. Delve into the psychology of fear, exploring its evolutionary origins, cognitive processes, and the ways in which it influences decision-making."

Fear and Resilience Hook

"Fear can be a formidable adversary, but it can also reveal our capacity for resilience. Investigate how individuals and communities have harnessed fear to drive positive change and build resilience."

Overcoming Fear: Strategies for Empowerment Hook

"Fear is a universal experience, but it doesn't have to control our lives. Explore strategies for overcoming fear, building confidence, and living a life guided by courage and empowerment."

Fear: a Primal Instinct and Modern Challenge

A fear of phobias: understanding and addressing irrational fears, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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Paranoia and Fear in Macbeth

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Analysis of Main Types of Fear: Invitational, Instinctual and Fear of Trauma

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Report on Fear: Responses, Causes, Types and Main Triggers

The way to overcome fear of failure, being motivated by your fears, the fear development in the human psyche, my greatest fear is losing my family, how to overcome the fear of flying, research on the fear of crime, how to permanently overcome fear, the causes and effects of fear, do not live your life in fear, your fear shouldn’t drag you down, the impact of fear on human's behavior, reasons of fear of public speaking, the power of following your fear and anxiety, fear and anxiety in our lives and how to deal with it, the presence of fear in people's lifes, a fear of failure in educational setting, a report on phobia disorders, its types, symptoms, and treatments, how i have challenged my fear, the fear of failure and the fear of success as factors of procrastination, relevant topics.

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If anxiety is in my brain, why is my heart pounding? A psychiatrist explains the neuroscience and physiology of fear

Associate Professor of Psychiatry, Wayne State University

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Arash Javanbakht does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Wayne State University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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Heart in your throat. Butterflies in your stomach. Bad gut feeling. These are all phrases many people use to describe fear and anxiety. You have likely felt anxiety inside your chest or stomach, and your brain usually doesn’t hurt when you’re scared. Many cultures tie cowardice and bravery more to the heart or the guts than to the brain.

But science has traditionally seen the brain as the birthplace and processing site of fear and anxiety. Then why and how do you feel these emotions in other parts of your body?

I am a psychiatrist and neuroscientist who researches and treats fear and anxiety. In my book “ Afraid, ” I explain how fear works in the brain and the body and what too much anxiety does to the body. Research confirms that while emotions do originate in your brain, it’s your body that carries out the orders.

Fear and the brain

While your brain evolved to save you from a falling rock or speeding predator, the anxieties of modern life are often a lot more abstract. Fifty-thousand years ago, being rejected by your tribe could mean death, but not doing a great job on a public speech at school or at work doesn’t have the same consequences. Your brain, however, might not know the difference .

There are a few key areas of the brain that are heavily involved in processing fear.

When you perceive something as dangerous, whether it’s a gun pointed at you or a group of people looking unhappily at you, these sensory inputs are first relayed to the amygdala . This small, almond-shaped area of the brain located near your ears detects salience, or the emotional relevance of a situation and how to react to it. When you see something, it determines whether you should eat it, attack it, run away from it or have sex with it.

Threat detection is a vital part of this process, and it has to be fast. Early humans did not have much time to think when a lion was lunging toward them. They had to act quickly. For this reason, the amygdala evolved to bypass brain areas involved in logical thinking and can directly engage physical responses. For example, seeing an angry face on a computer screen can immediately trigger a detectable response from the amygdala without the viewer even being aware of this reaction.

The hippocampus is near and tightly connected to the amygdala. It’s involved in memorizing what is safe and what is dangerous, especially in relation to the environment – it puts fear in context. For example, seeing an angry lion in the zoo and in the Sahara both trigger a fear response in the amygdala. But the hippocampus steps in and blocks this response when you’re at the zoo because you aren’t in danger.

The prefrontal cortex , located above your eyes, is mostly involved in the cognitive and social aspects of fear processing. For example, you might be scared of a snake until you read a sign that the snake is nonpoisonous or the owner tells you it’s their friendly pet.

Although the prefrontal cortex is usually seen as the part of the brain that regulates emotions, it can also teach you fear based on your social environment. For example, you might feel neutral about a meeting with your boss but immediately feel nervous when a colleague tells you about rumors of layoffs. Many prejudices like racism are rooted in learning fear through tribalism.

Fear and the rest of the body

If your brain decides that a fear response is justified in a particular situation, it activates a cascade of neuronal and hormonal pathways to prepare you for immediate action. Some of the fight-or-flight response – like heightened attention and threat detection – takes place in the brain. But the body is where most of the action happens.

Several pathways prepare different body systems for intense physical action. The motor cortex of the brain sends rapid signals to your muscles to prepare them for quick and forceful movements. These include muscles in the chest and stomach that help protect vital organs in those areas. That might contribute to a feeling of tightness in your chest and stomach in stressful conditions.

The sympathetic nervous system is the gas pedal that speeds up the systems involved in fight or flight. Sympathetic neurons are spread throughout the body and are especially dense in places like the heart, lungs and intestines. These neurons trigger the adrenal gland to release hormones like adrenaline that travel through the blood to reach those organs and increase the rate at which they undergo the fear response.

To assure sufficient blood supply to your muscles when they’re in high demand, signals from the sympathetic nervous system increase the rate your heart beats and the force with which it contracts. You feel both increased heart rate and contraction force in your chest, which is why you may connect the feeling of intense emotions to your heart.

In your lungs, signals from the sympathetic nervous system dilate airways and often increase your breathing rate and depth. Sometimes this results in a feeling of shortness of breath .

As digestion is the last priority during a fight-or-flight situation, sympathetic activation slows down your gut and reduces blood flow to your stomach to save oxygen and nutrients for more vital organs like the heart and the brain. These changes to your gastrointestinal system can be perceived as the discomfort linked to fear and anxiety.

It all goes back to the brain

All bodily sensations, including those visceral feelings from your chest and stomach, are relayed back to the brain through the pathways via the spinal cord . Your already anxious and highly alert brain then processes these signals at both conscious and unconscious levels.

The insula is a part of the brain specifically involved in conscious awareness of your emotions, pain and bodily sensations. The prefrontal cortex also engages in self-awareness, especially by labeling and naming these physical sensations, like feeling tightness or pain in your stomach, and attributing cognitive value to them, like “this is fine and will go away” or “this is terrible and I am dying.” These physical sensations can sometimes create a loop of increasing anxiety as they make the brain feel more scared of the situation because of the turmoil it senses in the body.

Although the feelings of fear and anxiety start in your brain, you also feel them in your body because your brain alters your bodily functions. Emotions take place in both your body and your brain, but you become aware of their existence with your brain. As the rapper Eminem recounted in his song “Lose Yourself,” the reason his palms were sweaty, his knees weak and his arms heavy was because his brain was nervous.

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When Someone Has a Fear of the Unknown

• Who Is at Risk?

Fear of the unknown is, in the view of some researchers, the "one fear to rule them all." They study whether this fear (sometimes called xenophobia ) is the underlying principle of anxiety, or how it might be the same fear that animates phobias caused by snakes , heights, or public speaking .

Essentially, it's fear caused by a lack of information about other people and experiences and a low tolerance for the uncertainty that comes with exposure. While fear of the unknown can sometimes be a natural response, problems arise when people are frozen by it or respond with irrational choices.

This article presents information about the fear of the unknown and its common symptoms and causes. It discusses treatments and ways to cope with this mental health condition.

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Like many fears or phobias , symptoms may vary between people. Those with a fear of the unknown may experience intense feelings of distress and anxiety and may even have panic attacks .

This intolerance of uncertainty has been associated with other fears, including agoraphobia (fear of places and situations that's enough to keep you home because something bad might happen).

Symptoms associated with this type of anxiety can occur suddenly and without warning and may include:

• Rapid heartbeat
• Chest pain and chest tightness
• Shortness of breath
• Feeling lightheaded or dizzy
• Chills and sweats
• Digestive upset ( nausea , diarrhea)
• Tingling and numbness
• Feeling disoriented or confused

Fear of the unknown may prevent people from going about the activities of their daily lives and can cause anxiety or depression. They may experience difficulty in making plans or decisions because they feel a need to know the outcome.

Fear of the unknown may cause a person to have negative feelings towards situations that are uncertain in some way. They may also process information differently in the face of ambiguity. In seeking to avoid their feelings, they may reinforce their fears.

There's some evidence to suggest that fear of the unknown is key to human survival. It led people to approach the unknown with caution, and may have informed human " fight, flight, or freeze " responses to potential threats.

When a person encounters a situation that is unknown, their body reacts by going through a number of changes. These include:

• Changes in brain activity and key neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)
• Release of insulin, and stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline
• Increases in heart rate and blood pressure

The problems with fear of the unknown arise when these responses aren't helpful or appropriate to the situation.

Environmental and Genetic Factors

Fear can be caused by a number of factors and may develop during childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. Many fears can be traced to a negative experience in childhood that may have been traumatic. Other potential causes include:

• A learned history: If a child has a parent who is particularly anxious about the unknown, they may also go on to develop a fear of the unknown.
• Genetics and brain chemistry, which are believed to play a role.

Who Is at Risk for Having a Fear of the Unknown?

When it comes to fear of the unknown, much remains unknown. Researchers who study the ability to tolerate uncertainty report that people who find it difficult share similar traits as those diagnosed with:

• Anxiety disorder
• Social anxiety
• Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
• Eating disorders
• Alcohol use disorder

Complications

Other studies find that this fear of the unknown is a risk factor for depression , prolonged grief disorders , and post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ). While these may occur in specific circumstances, like the death of a loved one, they also can occur in other contexts.

Hoarding Behaviors and the Unknown

Hoarding disorder was once considered a subtype of OCD but is now its own diagnosis. People with a hoarding disorder experience distress when they can't collect items or have to discard them, despite the hazards that collected items might present. The intolerance of uncertainty is a known factor in hoarding disorder.

Those who experience a fear of the unknown or intolerance of uncertainty may benefit from treatment. Treatment options may include counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy, and exposure therapy.

Self-Help Techniques

Trying self-help techniques may be helpful for some people with a fear of the unknown.

Some ideas to try can include:

• Attending a support group
• Practicing relaxation techniques like deep breathing
• Practicing visualization, which involves visualizing in your mind how you may cope successfully with a situation that is unknown or uncertain

A 2021 study found that young people were especially open to learning about the genetic and environmental factors that can contribute to psychiatric disorders, including fear of the unknown. They showed interest in healthy lifestyle choices that can offer benefits, including:

• A healthy and well-balanced diet
• Exercise to improve fitness and well-being
• Getting enough quality sleep
• Avoiding alcohol, drugs, and smoking

Counseling is a form of psychological therapy in which a therapist helps you develop strategies for dealing with issues like fear and panic attacks.

During counseling sessions, you will talk about your feelings and fears without judgment. The therapist will then help you understand how you are feeling and help you develop solutions you feel comfortable with.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of treatment designed to help people change how they behave or think in response to certain people or situations. It is helpful in treating people with anxiety, depression, and PTSD.

Your therapist can help to equip you with new techniques for navigating your challenges and the confidence to use them when you're confronted with fears of the unknown.

Exposure Therapy

Exposure therapy is designed to help someone face their fears in a safe and controlled environment. It is often used to treat people with phobias and those diagnosed with PTSD.

Different types of exposure therapy can include virtual reality experiences, used to explore a traumatic experience, or imagining a scenario. In some cases, people physically experience the stressor, which may be helpful in dealing with fear of the unknown.

Exposure therapy can progress at different paces. The therapist may choose to have someone face their most difficult fears and tasks first (called flooding). Or, they may use a graded approach to build up tolerance. A systematic approach can be done in combination with relaxation techniques.

Dealing with a fear of the unknown can be difficult. Along with the above treatment options, there are steps you can take to help cope with your fear.

The American Psychological Association suggests trying the following tips to cope:

• Try not to dwell on things that are beyond your control.
• Be kind to yourself and remember that everyone has a different level of tolerance for the unknown or uncertain.
• Try and learn a new skill to build your confidence.
• Practice self-care, including exercise, eating well, and getting enough sleep.
• Limit your exposure to news, especially right before you go to sleep.
• Reach out to friends and family for support.
• Reflect on a past stressful event you have managed to overcome.
• Seek help from a therapist or psychologist.
• Focus on the things you can control.

Fear of the unknown is an intense fear of uncertain or unknown situations. It can lead to intense distress or anxiety, and interfere with daily life.

People who fear the unknown may go to great lengths to seek certainty, even though this relief may only be temporary. Treatment to help alleviate a fear of the unknown may include counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy, and lifestyle changes to reduce anxiety.

Carleton RN. Fear of the unknown: One fear to rule them all? J Anxiety Disord. 2016 Jun;41:5-21. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.011.

Raub JN. Knowledge, fear of the unknown, opinion, and the pandemic . A m J Health Syst Pharm . 2022 Feb 18;79(5):400-401. doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxab323.

Knowles KA, Cole DA, Cox RC, Olatunji BO. Time-Varying and Time-Invariant Dimensions in Intolerance of Uncertainty: Specificity in the Prediction of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms . Behav Ther . 2022 Jul;53(4):686-700. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2022.01.012. 

National Health Service. Causes - phobias.

Jacoby RJ. Intolerance of uncertainty. In: Abramowitz JS, Blakey SM, eds. Clinical handbook of fear and anxiety: Maintenance processes and treatment mechanisms. American Psychological Association; 2020:45-63. 

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Perelman School of Medicine.  Specific phobias.

Morriss J, Goh K, Hirsch CR, Dodd HF. Intolerance of uncertainty heightens negative emotional states and dampens positive emotional states . Front Psychiatry . 2023 Mar 22;14:1147970. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1147970. 

Puddephatt JA, Irizar P, Jones A, Gage SH, Goodwin L. Associations of common mental disorder with alcohol use in the adult general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Addiction . 2022 Jun;117(6):1543-1572. doi:10.1111/add.15735. 

Boelen PA, Reijntjes A, Smid GE. Concurrent and prospective associations of intolerance of uncertainty with symptoms of prolonged grief, posttraumatic stress, and depression after bereavement . J Anxiety Disord . 2016 Jun;41:65-72. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.004. 

National Health Service. Self-help - Phobias.

Sabatello M, Chen Y, Herrera CF, Brockhoff E, Austin J, Appelbaum PS. Teenagers and Precision Psychiatry: A Window of Opportunity. Public Health Genomics . 2021;24(1-2):14-25. doi: 10.1159/000512475.

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Coffey SF, Banducci AN, Vinci C.  Common questions about cognitive behavior therapy for psychiatric disorders .  Am Fam Physician . 2015;92(9):807-812. PMID: 26554473.

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American Psychological Association. 10 tips for dealing with the stress of uncertainty .

The American Psychological Association. The great unknown: 10 tips for dealing with the stress of uncertainty.

By Elizabeth Pratt Pratt is a freelance medical and mental health journalist with a master's degree in health communication.

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Thalassophobia (Fear of the Ocean): Symptoms and Ways to Cope

 Verywell / JR Bee

• Causes, Triggers, & Risk Factors
• Signs & Symptoms

Thalassophobia Treatment

Complications of thalassophobia, thalassophobia prevention, tips for coping with thalassophobia.

Thalassophobia is a specific phobia that involves a persistent, intense fear of deep bodies of water such as the ocean or a lake. It stems from the Greek word thalassa ("the sea") and phobos ("fear"). Although not recognized as a distinct disorder by the DSM-5 , its symptoms meet the diagnostic criteria for specific phobias .

Thalassophobia differs from aquaphobia, the fear of water, in that it centers on bodies of water that seem vast, dark, deep, and dangerous. People are not afraid of the water so much as they are afraid of what lurks beneath its surface.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), phobias are the most common type of mental illness in the United States. While specific phobias themselves are quite common among the general population, it is unknown how many people have thalassophobia.

Click Play to Learn More About the Fear of the Ocean

This video has been medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD .

Specific phobias tend to be one of five different types:

• Animal type
• Blood-injection type
• Natural-environment type
• Situational type

Thalassophobia is usually considered a natural-environment type of specific phobia. Natural environment fears tend to be one of the more frequently experienced types of phobias, with some studies suggesting that water-related phobias tend to be more common among women.

What Is Thalassophobia Caused By?

There are a number of factors that may cause this fear of the ocean and sea. Like other types of phobia, it is likely a combination of nature and nurture that contributes to thalassophobia.

From a nature perspective, evolution and genetics may play a role. Our ancestors who were more cautious and fearful of deep bodies of water were probably more likely to survive and pass down these fearful genes to their offspring.

Past Experiences

This fear may also be partially learned due to experiences people may have had around water. Being frightened by something while swimming, for example, may also be a possible cause of this type of fear.

Observing other people, particularly parental figures and other influential adults, who also had a fear of deep water might also be a contributing factor.

There are also a number of risk factors that might increase the likelihood that a person will develop a specific phobia such as thalassophobia. Some of these include:

• Having a family member with thalassophobia or another type of specific phobia
• Personality factors , such as being more negative, sensitive, or anxious
• Traumatic personal experiences involving deep water, large bodies of water, or ocean travel
• Hearing stories from other people or through media sources focused on water accidents

Signs & Symptoms of Thalassophobia

A phobia can trigger both physical and emotional symptoms of anxiety and fear.

Some of the common physical symptoms of thalassophobia include:

• Lightheadedness
• Racing heart
• Rapid breathing
• Shortness of breath

Emotional symptoms can include:

• Being overwhelmed
• Feelings of anxiety
• Feeling detached from the situation
• Having a sense of imminent doom
• Needing to escape

This fear response can happen if you come into direct contact with the ocean or other deep bodies of water, such as driving past the beach or flying over the ocean on a plane. But you don't necessarily have to be near water to experience symptoms.

For some people, simply imaging deep water, looking at a photograph of the water, or even the sight of words like "ocean" or "lake" is enough to trigger the response.

A phobic response is more than just feeling nervous or anxious. Imagine how you felt the last time you were faced with something dangerous. You probably experienced an immediate and intense onset of the fight-or-flight response , a series of reactions that prepare your body to either stay and deal with the threat or run away from the danger. A person with thalassophobia will experience that same reaction even if the response is out of proportion to the actual danger.

In addition to these physical symptoms when encountering deep water, people will also go to great lengths to avoid being near or having to even look at large bodies of water. They may experience anticipatory anxiety when they know that they will be encountering the object of their fear, such as feeling extremely nervous before boarding a ferry boat and forms of water travel.

Thalassophobia Diagnosis 

If you suspect you might have thalassophobia, there are a few things that you can do. An informal online test might give you an indication that you have this type of specific phobia. Such internet-based, at-home tests might involve looking at potentially triggering images or taking a quiz to determine the extent and severity of your symptoms.

For a more formal diagnosis, you will need to consult a health professional such as a doctor, psychiatrist, or psychologist.

While there is no formal test or assessment to diagnose this phobia, your doctor will likely assess your symptoms and investigate any possible underlying medical factors. Once your doctor understands your medical and symptom history, you may then be formally diagnosed with a specific phobia.

In order to be diagnosed with a specific phobia according to the DSM-5:

• Your fear of deep water is persistent, excessive, and unreasonable
• You feel this fear every time you are exposed to deep or open water
• You realize that your fear is out of proportion to the actual dangers
• You either avoid the ocean or other waters or endure them with intense fear
• Your fear of large bodies of water interferes with your normal functioning
• You fear has been present for six months or longer
• Your fear is not better explained by another disorder such as generalized anxiety disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder

While there is no research available on the treatment of thalassophobia specifically, it is assumed that people would experience similar treatment results to those of other phobias.

Research suggests that behavior therapy treatments, particularly exposure-based treatments, tend to be quite effective at reducing symptoms of specific phobias.   Other forms of behavioral therapy found effective for phobias include:

• Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Systematic desensitization

Research has found that not all treatments have the same effectiveness for different subtypes of specific phobias.   In vivo exposure (which involves being exposed to the fear object in real life), for example, while effective for all types, also has high dropout rates and poor treatment acceptance.

Research suggests that in vivo exposure tends to be more effective than imagined exposure, but a study published in Frontiers in Psychology found that virtual exposure appeared as effective as real-world exposure.  

Of course, exposure to a fear object in real-life is not always possible, particularly if it involves something dangerous or impossible. In the case of thalassophobia, live exposure to open water may be the most effective but imagined exposure may provide some benefits if this is not possible.

Treatment may sometimes encompass a number of different strategies including gradual exposure, systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring, and relaxation techniques. 

Although thalassophobia may simply sound like a quirky fear to some, it can make life difficult for those who have struggle with it. These complications can ultimately end up impacting many different areas of a person’s life.

Panic Attacks

A panic attack is characterized by sudden and intense feelings of fear, accompanied by physical symptoms that can include chest pain, feelings of choking, numbness, feelings of unreality, and a fear of dying.

Loneliness and Social Isolation

Anxiety symptoms and fear of suffering a panic attack can sometimes lead people to avoid situations where they might come into contact with their fear object.

Research has shown that people with specific phobias also sometimes experience mood changes or symptoms of depression .  

Substance Misuse

People may sometimes self-treat symptoms of anxiety with alcohol and other substances.

While genetic and evolutionary factors may play a role in the onset of specific phobias such as thalassophobia, there are steps people may take to help prevent such fears from developing.

Because thalassophobia is often provoked by a specific stressful or traumatic experience, how such experiences are dealt with can play a major role in whether a phobia eventually takes hold.  

Some steps you can take to minimize the risk of developing thalassophobia include:

• Get help early : If you suspect you might be developing a severe fear of deep or open water, look for ways to deal with your anxiety as soon as possible. This might involve talking to a mental health professional about what you can do to ease your fears.
• Model desired behaviors : Children may learn phobic responses from parents, so if you have a fear of deep, dark water, your child may pick up on your anxiety as well. Seeing you respond fearfully to certain things and situations may result in your child developing the same fear response. You can help prevent this by confronting your own fears in a positive way and modeling non-anxious behaviors around your children.

Dealing with thalassophobia can be challenging, but there are things that you can do to cope and ease your fears.

Relaxation Strategies

When you find yourself experiencing fear-related symptoms in response to water or even the thought of water, try a relaxation technique to calm your mind and body, including:

• Deep breathing
• Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR)
• Visualization

The more you practice these techniques, the better able you will be able to control your symptoms in the face of your fears.

Self-Exposure

While treatment under the care of a therapist is often best, you can also take a self-help approach to confront your fears. Start by simply visualizing yourself near a deep body of water, then use the relaxation techniques you have been practicing to calm yourself.

Over time, gradually expose yourself to the source of your fear, starting with images, then smaller bodies of water, and eventually the ocean, sea, or large lake. Each time, use your relaxation methods to ease your fear response.

Over time, your fears should begin to ease and you should find it much easier to reach a calm state of mind.

Note: Always use caution and never place yourself in a potentially unsafe situation. The key is to only confront your fear in a well-controlled environment. 

The most important thing to remember when trying to cope with your thalassophobia is to be kind to yourself. Specific phobias are quite common, so while not everyone shares your exact fear, many people have been in your shoes and know what it to experience such overwhelming feelings of anxiety.

Give yourself the time and resources you need to deal with your fears and don’t be afraid to reach out to a doctor or therapist if you need help managing your anxiety.

If you or a loved one are struggling with a phobia, contact the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."