research methodology study area

What Is Research Methodology?

I f you’re new to formal academic research, it’s quite likely that you’re feeling a little overwhelmed by all the technical lingo that gets thrown around. And who could blame you – “research methodology”, “research methods”, “sampling strategies”… it all seems never-ending!

In this post, we’ll demystify the landscape with plain-language explanations and loads of examples (including easy-to-follow videos), so that you can approach your dissertation, thesis or research project with confidence. Let’s get started.

Research Methodology 101

• What exactly research methodology means
• What qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods are
• What sampling strategy is
• What data collection methods are
• What data analysis methods are
• How to choose your research methodology
• Example of a research methodology

What is research methodology?

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of a research study. More specifically, it’s about how  a researcher  systematically designs a study  to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions . Specifically, how the researcher went about deciding:

• What type of data to collect (e.g., qualitative or quantitative data )
• Who  to collect it from (i.e., the sampling strategy )
• How to  collect  it (i.e., the data collection method )
• How to  analyse  it (i.e., the data analysis methods )

Within any formal piece of academic research (be it a dissertation, thesis or journal article), you’ll find a research methodology chapter or section which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good methodology chapter explains not just   what methodological choices were made, but also explains  why they were made. In other words, the methodology chapter should justify  the design choices, by showing that the chosen methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims, objectives and research questions. 

So, it’s the same as research design?

Not quite. As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you’ll collect, from who, how you’ll collect it and how you’ll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you’ll adopt in your study. For example, whether you’ll use an experimental design in which you manipulate one variable while controlling others. You can learn more about research design and the various design types here .

Need a helping hand?

What are qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods?

Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods are different types of methodological approaches, distinguished by their focus on words , numbers or both . This is a bit of an oversimplification, but its a good starting point for understanding.

Let’s take a closer look.

Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing words (written or spoken) and textual or visual data, whereas quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data . Qualitative analysis can also focus on other “softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements.

It’s quite common for a qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and research questions are exploratory  in nature. For example, a qualitative methodology might be used to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event that took place, or a political candidate running for president. 

Contrasted to this, a quantitative methodology is typically used when the research aims and research questions are confirmatory  in nature. For example, a quantitative methodology might be used to measure the relationship between two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses .

As you’ve probably guessed, the mixed-method methodology attempts to combine the best of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to integrate perspectives and create a rich picture. If you’d like to learn more about these three methodological approaches, be sure to watch our explainer video below.

What is sampling strategy?

Simply put, sampling is about deciding who (or where) you’re going to collect your data from . Why does this matter? Well, generally it’s not possible to collect data from every single person in your group of interest (this is called the “population”), so you’ll need to engage a smaller portion of that group that’s accessible and manageable (this is called the “sample”).

How you go about selecting the sample (i.e., your sampling strategy) will have a major impact on your study.  There are many different sampling methods  you can choose from, but the two overarching categories are probability   sampling and  non-probability   sampling .

Probability sampling  involves using a completely random sample from the group of people you’re interested in. This is comparable to throwing the names all potential participants into a hat, shaking it up, and picking out the “winners”. By using a completely random sample, you’ll minimise the risk of selection bias and the results of your study will be more generalisable  to the entire population. 

Non-probability sampling , on the other hand,  doesn’t use a random sample . For example, it might involve using a convenience sample, which means you’d only interview or survey people that you have access to (perhaps your friends, family or work colleagues), rather than a truly random sample. With non-probability sampling, the results are typically not generalisable .

To learn more about sampling methods, be sure to check out the video below.

What are data collection methods?

As the name suggests, data collection methods simply refers to the way in which you go about collecting the data for your study. Some of the most common data collection methods include:

• Interviews (which can be unstructured, semi-structured or structured)
• Focus groups and group interviews
• Surveys (online or physical surveys)
• Observations (watching and recording activities)
• Biophysical measurements (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, etc.)
• Documents and records (e.g., financial reports, court records, etc.)

The choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and research questions , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. For example, if your research is exploratory in nature, qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups would likely be a good fit. Conversely, if your research aims to measure specific variables or test hypotheses, large-scale surveys that produce large volumes of numerical data would likely be a better fit.

What are data analysis methods?

Data analysis methods refer to the methods and techniques that you’ll use to make sense of your data. These can be grouped according to whether the research is qualitative  (words-based) or quantitative (numbers-based).

Popular data analysis methods in qualitative research include:

• Qualitative content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
• Visual analysis (of photographs, videos, art, etc.)

Qualitative data analysis all begins with data coding , after which an analysis method is applied. In some cases, more than one analysis method is used, depending on the research aims and research questions . In the video below, we explore some  common qualitative analysis methods, along with practical examples.  

• Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, medians, modes )
• Inferential statistics (e.g. correlation, regression, structural equation modelling)

How do I choose a research methodology?

As you’ve probably picked up by now, your research aims and objectives have a major influence on the research methodology . So, the starting point for developing your research methodology is to take a step back and look at the big picture of your research, before you make methodology decisions. The first question you need to ask yourself is whether your research is exploratory or confirmatory in nature.

If your research aims and objectives are primarily exploratory in nature, your research will likely be qualitative and therefore you might consider qualitative data collection methods (e.g. interviews) and analysis methods (e.g. qualitative content analysis). 

Conversely, if your research aims and objective are looking to measure or test something (i.e. they’re confirmatory), then your research will quite likely be quantitative in nature, and you might consider quantitative data collection methods (e.g. surveys) and analyses (e.g. statistical analysis).

Designing your research and working out your methodology is a large topic, which we cover extensively on the blog . For now, however, the key takeaway is that you should always start with your research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread). Every methodological choice you make needs align with those three components. 

Example of a research methodology chapter

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of a research methodology from an actual dissertation, as well as an overview of our free methodology template .

Learn More About Methodology

Triangulation: The Ultimate Credibility Enhancer

Triangulation is one of the best ways to enhance the credibility of your research. Learn about the different options here.

Research Limitations 101: What You Need To Know

Learn everything you need to know about research limitations (AKA limitations of the study). Includes practical examples from real studies.

In Vivo Coding 101: Full Explainer With Examples

Learn about in vivo coding, a popular qualitative coding technique ideal for studies where the nuances of language are central to the aims.

Process Coding 101: Full Explainer With Examples

Learn about process coding, a popular qualitative coding technique ideal for studies exploring processes, actions and changes over time.

Qualitative Coding 101: Inductive, Deductive & Hybrid Coding

Inductive, Deductive & Abductive Coding Qualitative Coding Approaches Explained...

📄 FREE TEMPLATES

Research Topic Ideation

Proposal Writing

Literature Review

Methodology & Analysis

Academic Writing

Referencing & Citing

Apps, Tools & Tricks

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Thanks for your comment.

We can’t write your methodology for you. If you’re looking for samples, you should be able to find some sample methodologies on Google. Alternatively, you can download some previous dissertations from a dissertation directory and have a look at the methodology chapters therein.

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MLA Jansen, Derek, and Kerryn Warren. “What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology?” Grad Coach, June 2021, gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/.

APA Jansen, D., & Warren, K. (2021, June). What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology? Grad Coach. https://gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/

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What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

• Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
• You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
• A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
• It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
• A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
• It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
• A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

Writing the methods section of a research paper? Let Paperpal help you achieve perfection

Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

• Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
• Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
• Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

• Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

• Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
• Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
• Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
• Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
• Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
• Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

• One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
• Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
• Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
• Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

• Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
• Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
• Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

• Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
• Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
• Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
• Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
• Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

• Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
• Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
• Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
• Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
• Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

• Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
• Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
• Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
• Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
• Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

• Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
• Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
• Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
• Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
• Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
• Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
• Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
• Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
• Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
• Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

• Research design
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis methods
• Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

• Participants should not be subjected to harm.
• Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
• Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
• Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
• Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
• The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
• Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
• Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
• Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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• Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
• Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
• The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
• Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
• What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
• What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
• Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
• Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
• What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
• Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• How you mitigated or avoided research biases
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

• Information bias
• Omitted variable bias
• Regression to the mean
• Survivorship bias
• Undercoverage bias
• Sampling bias

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

• The Hawthorne effect
• Observer bias
• The placebo effect
• Response bias and Nonresponse bias
• The Pygmalion effect
• Recall bias
• Social desirability bias
• Self-selection bias

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles

Methodology

• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

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Research Design and Methodology

Submitted: 23 January 2019 Reviewed: 08 March 2019 Published: 07 August 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.85731

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There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.

• research design
• methodology
• data sources

Author Information

Kassu jilcha sileyew *.

• School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and objective and present their result from the data obtained during the study period. This research design and methodology chapter also shows how the research outcome at the end will be obtained in line with meeting the objective of the study. This chapter hence discusses the research methods that were used during the research process. It includes the research methodology of the study from the research strategy to the result dissemination. For emphasis, in this chapter, the author outlines the research strategy, research design, research methodology, the study area, data sources such as primary data sources and secondary data, population consideration and sample size determination such as questionnaires sample size determination and workplace site exposure measurement sample determination, data collection methods like primary data collection methods including workplace site observation data collection and data collection through desk review, data collection through questionnaires, data obtained from experts opinion, workplace site exposure measurement, data collection tools pretest, secondary data collection methods, methods of data analysis used such as quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis, data analysis software, the reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data, reliability of data, reliability analysis, validity, data quality management, inclusion criteria, ethical consideration and dissemination of result and its utilization approaches. In order to satisfy the objectives of the study, a qualitative and quantitative research method is apprehended in general. The study used these mixed strategies because the data were obtained from all aspects of the data source during the study time. Therefore, the purpose of this methodology is to satisfy the research plan and target devised by the researcher.

2. Research design

The research design is intended to provide an appropriate framework for a study. A very significant decision in research design process is the choice to be made regarding research approach since it determines how relevant information for a study will be obtained; however, the research design process involves many interrelated decisions [ 1 ].

This study employed a mixed type of methods. The first part of the study consisted of a series of well-structured questionnaires (for management, employee’s representatives, and technician of industries) and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (government bodies, ministries, and industries) in participating organizations. The other design used is an interview of employees to know how they feel about safety and health of their workplace, and field observation at the selected industrial sites was undertaken.

Hence, this study employs a descriptive research design to agree on the effects of occupational safety and health management system on employee health, safety, and property damage for selected manufacturing industries. Saunders et al. [ 2 ] and Miller [ 3 ] say that descriptive research portrays an accurate profile of persons, events, or situations. This design offers to the researchers a profile of described relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizational, and industry-oriented perspective. Therefore, this research design enabled the researchers to gather data from a wide range of respondents on the impact of safety and health on manufacturing industries in Ethiopia. And this helped in analyzing the response obtained on how it affects the manufacturing industries’ workplace safety and health. The research overall design and flow process are depicted in Figure 1 .

Research methods and processes (author design).

3. Research methodology

To address the key research objectives, this research used both qualitative and quantitative methods and combination of primary and secondary sources. The qualitative data supports the quantitative data analysis and results. The result obtained is triangulated since the researcher utilized the qualitative and quantitative data types in the data analysis. The study area, data sources, and sampling techniques were discussed under this section.

3.1 The study area

According to Fraenkel and Warren [ 4 ] studies, population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested. The population of the study was determined based on random sampling system. This data collection was conducted from March 07, 2015 to December 10, 2016, from selected manufacturing industries found in Addis Ababa city and around. The manufacturing companies were selected based on their employee number, established year, and the potential accidents prevailing and the manufacturing industry type even though all criterions were difficult to satisfy.

3.2 Data sources

3.2.1 primary data sources.

It was obtained from the original source of information. The primary data were more reliable and have more confidence level of decision-making with the trusted analysis having direct intact with occurrence of the events. The primary data sources are industries’ working environment (through observation, pictures, and photograph) and industry employees (management and bottom workers) (interview, questionnaires and discussions).

3.2.2 Secondary data

Desk review has been conducted to collect data from various secondary sources. This includes reports and project documents at each manufacturing sectors (more on medium and large level). Secondary data sources have been obtained from literatures regarding OSH, and the remaining data were from the companies’ manuals, reports, and some management documents which were included under the desk review. Reputable journals, books, different articles, periodicals, proceedings, magazines, newsletters, newspapers, websites, and other sources were considered on the manufacturing industrial sectors. The data also obtained from the existing working documents, manuals, procedures, reports, statistical data, policies, regulations, and standards were taken into account for the review.

In general, for this research study, the desk review has been completed to this end, and it had been polished and modified upon manuals and documents obtained from the selected companies.

4. Population and sample size

4.1 population.

The study population consisted of manufacturing industries’ employees in Addis Ababa city and around as there are more representative manufacturing industrial clusters found. To select representative manufacturing industrial sector population, the types of the industries expected were more potential to accidents based on random and purposive sampling considered. The population of data was from textile, leather, metal, chemicals, and food manufacturing industries. A total of 189 sample sizes of industries responded to the questionnaire survey from the priority areas of the government. Random sample sizes and disproportionate methods were used, and 80 from wood, metal, and iron works; 30 from food, beverage, and tobacco products; 50 from leather, textile, and garments; 20 from chemical and chemical products; and 9 from other remaining 9 clusters of manufacturing industries responded.

4.2 Questionnaire sample size determination

A simple random sampling and purposive sampling methods were used to select the representative manufacturing industries and respondents for the study. The simple random sampling ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance for the selection or the chance of getting a response which can be more than equal to the chance depending on the data analysis justification. Sample size determination procedure was used to get optimum and reasonable information. In this study, both probability (simple random sampling) and nonprobability (convenience, quota, purposive, and judgmental) sampling methods were used as the nature of the industries are varied. This is because of the characteristics of data sources which permitted the researchers to follow the multi-methods. This helps the analysis to triangulate the data obtained and increase the reliability of the research outcome and its decision. The companies’ establishment time and its engagement in operation, the number of employees and the proportion it has, the owner types (government and private), type of manufacturing industry/production, types of resource used at work, and the location it is found in the city and around were some of the criteria for the selections.

The determination of the sample size was adopted from Daniel [ 5 ] and Cochran [ 6 ] formula. The formula used was for unknown population size Eq. (1) and is given as

where n  = sample size, Z  = statistic for a level of confidence, P  = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P  = 0.5), and d  = precision (in proportion of one; if 6%, d  = 0.06). Z statistic ( Z ): for the level of confidence of 95%, which is conventional, Z value is 1.96. In this study, investigators present their results with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

The expected sample number was 267 at the marginal error of 6% for 95% confidence interval of manufacturing industries. However, the collected data indicated that only 189 populations were used for the analysis after rejecting some data having more missing values in the responses from the industries. Hence, the actual data collection resulted in 71% response rate. The 267 population were assumed to be satisfactory and representative for the data analysis.

4.3 Workplace site exposure measurement sample determination

The sample size for the experimental exposure measurements of physical work environment has been considered based on the physical data prepared for questionnaires and respondents. The response of positive were considered for exposure measurement factors to be considered for the physical environment health and disease causing such as noise intensity, light intensity, pressure/stress, vibration, temperature/coldness, or hotness and dust particles on 20 workplace sites. The selection method was using random sampling in line with purposive method. The measurement of the exposure factors was done in collaboration with Addis Ababa city Administration and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair (AACBOLSA). Some measuring instruments were obtained from the Addis Ababa city and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair.

5. Data collection methods

Data collection methods were focused on the followings basic techniques. These included secondary and primary data collections focusing on both qualitative and quantitative data as defined in the previous section. The data collection mechanisms are devised and prepared with their proper procedures.

5.1 Primary data collection methods

Primary data sources are qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative sources are field observation, interview, and informal discussions, while that of quantitative data sources are survey questionnaires and interview questions. The next sections elaborate how the data were obtained from the primary sources.

5.1.1 Workplace site observation data collection

Observation is an important aspect of science. Observation is tightly connected to data collection, and there are different sources for this: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, and participant observations. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. In this dissertation, the researchers used observation method as one tool for collecting information and data before questionnaire design and after the start of research too. The researcher made more than 20 specific observations of manufacturing industries in the study areas. During the observations, it found a deeper understanding of the working environment and the different sections in the production system and OSH practices.

5.1.2 Data collection through interview

Interview is a loosely structured qualitative in-depth interview with people who are considered to be particularly knowledgeable about the topic of interest. The semi-structured interview is usually conducted in a face-to-face setting which permits the researcher to seek new insights, ask questions, and assess phenomena in different perspectives. It let the researcher to know the in-depth of the present working environment influential factors and consequences. It has provided opportunities for refining data collection efforts and examining specialized systems or processes. It was used when the researcher faces written records or published document limitation or wanted to triangulate the data obtained from other primary and secondary data sources.

This dissertation is also conducted with a qualitative approach and conducting interviews. The advantage of using interviews as a method is that it allows respondents to raise issues that the interviewer may not have expected. All interviews with employees, management, and technicians were conducted by the corresponding researcher, on a face-to-face basis at workplace. All interviews were recorded and transcribed.

5.1.3 Data collection through questionnaires

The main tool for gaining primary information in practical research is questionnaires, due to the fact that the researcher can decide on the sample and the types of questions to be asked [ 2 ].

In this dissertation, each respondent is requested to reply to an identical list of questions mixed so that biasness was prevented. Initially the questionnaire design was coded and mixed up from specific topic based on uniform structures. Consequently, the questionnaire produced valuable data which was required to achieve the dissertation objectives.

The questionnaires developed were based on a five-item Likert scale. Responses were given to each statement using a five-point Likert-type scale, for which 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree.” The responses were summed up to produce a score for the measures.

5.1.4 Data obtained from experts’ opinion

The data was also obtained from the expert’s opinion related to the comparison of the knowledge, management, collaboration, and technology utilization including their sub-factors. The data obtained in this way was used for prioritization and decision-making of OSH, improving factor priority. The prioritization of the factors was using Saaty scales (1–9) and then converting to Fuzzy set values obtained from previous researches using triangular fuzzy set [ 7 ].

5.1.5 Workplace site exposure measurement

The researcher has measured the workplace environment for dust, vibration, heat, pressure, light, and noise to know how much is the level of each variable. The primary data sources planned and an actual coverage has been compared as shown in Table 1 .

Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.

The response rate for the proposed data source was good, and the pilot test also proved the reliability of questionnaires. Interview/discussion resulted in 87% of responses among the respondents; the survey questionnaire response rate obtained was 71%, and the field observation response rate was 90% for the whole data analysis process. Hence, the data organization quality level has not been compromised.

This response rate is considered to be representative of studies of organizations. As the study agrees on the response rate to be 30%, it is considered acceptable [ 8 ]. Saunders et al. [ 2 ] argued that the questionnaire with a scale response of 20% response rate is acceptable. Low response rate should not discourage the researchers, because a great deal of published research work also achieves low response rate. Hence, the response rate of this study is acceptable and very good for the purpose of meeting the study objectives.

5.1.6 Data collection tool pretest

The pretest for questionnaires, interviews, and tools were conducted to validate that the tool content is valid or not in the sense of the respondents’ understanding. Hence, content validity (in which the questions are answered to the target without excluding important points), internal validity (in which the questions raised answer the outcomes of researchers’ target), and external validity (in which the result can generalize to all the population from the survey sample population) were reflected. It has been proved with this pilot test prior to the start of the basic data collections. Following feedback process, a few minor changes were made to the originally designed data collect tools. The pilot test made for the questionnaire test was on 10 sample sizes selected randomly from the target sectors and experts.

5.2 Secondary data collection methods

The secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user. This data source gives insights of the research area of the current state-of-the-art method. It also makes some sort of research gap that needs to be filled by the researcher. This secondary data sources could be internal and external data sources of information that may cover a wide range of areas.

Literature/desk review and industry documents and reports: To achieve the dissertation’s objectives, the researcher has conducted excessive document review and reports of the companies in both online and offline modes. From a methodological point of view, literature reviews can be comprehended as content analysis, where quantitative and qualitative aspects are mixed to assess structural (descriptive) as well as content criteria.

A literature search was conducted using the database sources like MEDLINE; Emerald; Taylor and Francis publications; EMBASE (medical literature); PsycINFO (psychological literature); Sociological Abstracts (sociological literature); accident prevention journals; US Statistics of Labor, European Safety and Health database; ABI Inform; Business Source Premier (business/management literature); EconLit (economic literature); Social Service Abstracts (social work and social service literature); and other related materials. The search strategy was focused on articles or reports that measure one or more of the dimensions within the research OSH model framework. This search strategy was based on a framework and measurement filter strategy developed by the Consensus-Based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) group. Based on screening, unrelated articles to the research model and objectives were excluded. Prior to screening, researcher (principal investigator) reviewed a sample of more than 2000 articles, websites, reports, and guidelines to determine whether they should be included for further review or reject. Discrepancies were thoroughly identified and resolved before the review of the main group of more than 300 articles commenced. After excluding the articles based on the title, keywords, and abstract, the remaining articles were reviewed in detail, and the information was extracted on the instrument that was used to assess the dimension of research interest. A complete list of items was then collated within each research targets or objectives and reviewed to identify any missing elements.

6. Methods of data analysis

Data analysis method follows the procedures listed under the following sections. The data analysis part answered the basic questions raised in the problem statement. The detailed analysis of the developed and developing countries’ experiences on OSH regarding manufacturing industries was analyzed, discussed, compared and contrasted, and synthesized.

6.1 Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative data were obtained from primary and secondary data discussed above in this chapter. This data analysis was based on their data type using Excel, SPSS 20.0, Office Word format, and other tools. This data analysis focuses on numerical/quantitative data analysis.

Before analysis, data coding of responses and analysis were made. In order to analyze the data obtained easily, the data were coded to SPSS 20.0 software as the data obtained from questionnaires. This task involved identifying, classifying, and assigning a numeric or character symbol to data, which was done in only one way pre-coded [ 9 , 10 ]. In this study, all of the responses were pre-coded. They were taken from the list of responses, a number of corresponding to a particular selection was given. This process was applied to every earlier question that needed this treatment. Upon completion, the data were then entered to a statistical analysis software package, SPSS version 20.0 on Windows 10 for the next steps.

Under the data analysis, exploration of data has been made with descriptive statistics and graphical analysis. The analysis included exploring the relationship between variables and comparing groups how they affect each other. This has been done using cross tabulation/chi square, correlation, and factor analysis and using nonparametric statistic.

6.2 Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis used for triangulation of the quantitative data analysis. The interview, observation, and report records were used to support the findings. The analysis has been incorporated with the quantitative discussion results in the data analysis parts.

6.3 Data analysis software

The data were entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed. The analysis supported with SPSS software much contributed to the finding. It had contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.

7. The reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data

7.1 reliability of data.

The reliability of measurements specifies the amount to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument [ 8 ]. In reliability analysis, it has been checked for the stability and consistency of the data. In the case of reliability analysis, the researcher checked the accuracy and precision of the procedure of measurement. Reliability has numerous definitions and approaches, but in several environments, the concept comes to be consistent [ 8 ]. The measurement fulfills the requirements of reliability when it produces consistent results during data analysis procedure. The reliability is determined through Cranach’s alpha as shown in Table 2 .

Internal consistency and reliability test of questionnaires items.

K stands for knowledge; M, management; T, technology; C, collaboration; P, policy, standards, and regulation; H, hazards and accident conditions; PPE, personal protective equipment.

7.2 Reliability analysis

Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, i.e., how closely related a set of items are as a group [ 11 ]. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. The reliability of internal consistency most of the time is measured based on the Cronbach’s alpha value. Reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above is considered “acceptable” in most research situations [ 12 ]. In this study, reliability analysis for internal consistency of Likert-scale measurement after deleting 13 items was found similar; the reliability coefficients were found for 76 items were 0.964 and for the individual groupings made shown in Table 2 . It was also found internally consistent using the Cronbach’s alpha test. Table 2 shows the internal consistency of the seven major instruments in which their reliability falls in the acceptable range for this research.

7.3 Validity

Face validity used as defined by Babbie [ 13 ] is an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variables, and it is the subjective judgment that the instrument measures what it intends to measure in terms of relevance [ 14 ]. Thus, the researcher ensured, in this study, when developing the instruments that uncertainties were eliminated by using appropriate words and concepts in order to enhance clarity and general suitability [ 14 ]. Furthermore, the researcher submitted the instruments to the research supervisor and the joint supervisor who are both occupational health experts, to ensure validity of the measuring instruments and determine whether the instruments could be considered valid on face value.

In this study, the researcher was guided by reviewed literature related to compliance with the occupational health and safety conditions and data collection methods before he could develop the measuring instruments. In addition, the pretest study that was conducted prior to the main study assisted the researcher to avoid uncertainties of the contents in the data collection measuring instruments. A thorough inspection of the measuring instruments by the statistician and the researcher’s supervisor and joint experts, to ensure that all concepts pertaining to the study were included, ensured that the instruments were enriched.

8. Data quality management

Insight has been given to the data collectors on how to approach companies, and many of the questionnaires were distributed through MSc students at Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) and manufacturing industries’ experience experts. This made the data quality reliable as it has been continually discussed with them. Pretesting for questionnaire was done on 10 workers to assure the quality of the data and for improvement of data collection tools. Supervision during data collection was done to understand how the data collectors are handling the questionnaire, and each filled questionnaires was checked for its completeness, accuracy, clarity, and consistency on a daily basis either face-to-face or by phone/email. The data expected in poor quality were rejected out of the acting during the screening time. Among planned 267 questionnaires, 189 were responded back. Finally, it was analyzed by the principal investigator.

9. Inclusion criteria

The data were collected from the company representative with the knowledge of OSH. Articles written in English and Amharic were included in this study. Database information obtained in relation to articles and those who have OSH area such as interventions method, method of accident identification, impact of occupational accidents, types of occupational injuries/disease, and impact of occupational accidents, and disease on productivity and costs of company and have used at least one form of feedback mechanism. No specific time period was chosen in order to access all available published papers. The questionnaire statements which are similar in the questionnaire have been rejected from the data analysis.

10. Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University. Official letters were written from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering to the respective manufacturing industries. The purpose of the study was explained to the study subjects. The study subjects were told that the information they provided was kept confidential and that their identities would not be revealed in association with the information they provided. Informed consent was secured from each participant. For bad working environment assessment findings, feedback will be given to all manufacturing industries involved in the study. There is a plan to give a copy of the result to the respective study manufacturing industries’ and ministries’ offices. The respondents’ privacy and their responses were not individually analyzed and included in the report.

11. Dissemination and utilization of the result

The result of this study will be presented to the Addis Ababa University, AAiT, School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. It will also be communicated to the Ethiopian manufacturing industries, Ministry of Labor and Social Affair, Ministry of Industry, and Ministry of Health from where the data was collected. The result will also be availed by publication and online presentation in Google Scholars. To this end, about five articles were published and disseminated to the whole world.

12. Conclusion

The research methodology and design indicated overall process of the flow of the research for the given study. The data sources and data collection methods were used. The overall research strategies and framework are indicated in this research process from problem formulation to problem validation including all the parameters. It has laid some foundation and how research methodology is devised and framed for researchers. This means, it helps researchers to consider it as one of the samples and models for the research data collection and process from the beginning of the problem statement to the research finding. Especially, this research flow helps new researchers to the research environment and methodology in particular.

Conflict of interest

There is no “conflict of interest.”

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A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and why

• Lawrence Mbuagbaw   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5855-5461 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Daeria O. Lawson 1 ,
• Livia Puljak 4 ,
• David B. Allison 5 &
• Lehana Thabane 1 , 2 , 6 , 7 , 8  

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume  20 , Article number:  226 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Methodological studies – studies that evaluate the design, analysis or reporting of other research-related reports – play an important role in health research. They help to highlight issues in the conduct of research with the aim of improving health research methodology, and ultimately reducing research waste.

We provide an overview of some of the key aspects of methodological studies such as what they are, and when, how and why they are done. We adopt a “frequently asked questions” format to facilitate reading this paper and provide multiple examples to help guide researchers interested in conducting methodological studies. Some of the topics addressed include: is it necessary to publish a study protocol? How to select relevant research reports and databases for a methodological study? What approaches to data extraction and statistical analysis should be considered when conducting a methodological study? What are potential threats to validity and is there a way to appraise the quality of methodological studies?

Appropriate reflection and application of basic principles of epidemiology and biostatistics are required in the design and analysis of methodological studies. This paper provides an introduction for further discussion about the conduct of methodological studies.

Peer Review reports

The field of meta-research (or research-on-research) has proliferated in recent years in response to issues with research quality and conduct [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. As the name suggests, this field targets issues with research design, conduct, analysis and reporting. Various types of research reports are often examined as the unit of analysis in these studies (e.g. abstracts, full manuscripts, trial registry entries). Like many other novel fields of research, meta-research has seen a proliferation of use before the development of reporting guidance. For example, this was the case with randomized trials for which risk of bias tools and reporting guidelines were only developed much later – after many trials had been published and noted to have limitations [ 4 , 5 ]; and for systematic reviews as well [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, studies that report on research differ substantially in how they are named, conducted and reported [ 9 , 10 ]. This creates challenges in identifying, summarizing and comparing them. In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts).

In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to methodological studies (based on records retrieved with a keyword search [in the title and abstract] for “methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study” in PubMed up to December 2019), suggesting that these studies may be appearing more frequently in the literature. See Fig.  1 .

Trends in the number studies that mention “methodological review” or “meta-

epidemiological study” in PubMed.

The methods used in many methodological studies have been borrowed from systematic and scoping reviews. This practice has influenced the direction of the field, with many methodological studies including searches of electronic databases, screening of records, duplicate data extraction and assessments of risk of bias in the included studies. However, the research questions posed in methodological studies do not always require the approaches listed above, and guidance is needed on when and how to apply these methods to a methodological study. Even though methodological studies can be conducted on qualitative or mixed methods research, this paper focuses on and draws examples exclusively from quantitative research.

The objectives of this paper are to provide some insights on how to conduct methodological studies so that there is greater consistency between the research questions posed, and the design, analysis and reporting of findings. We provide multiple examples to illustrate concepts and a proposed framework for categorizing methodological studies in quantitative research.

What is a methodological study?

Any study that describes or analyzes methods (design, conduct, analysis or reporting) in published (or unpublished) literature is a methodological study. Consequently, the scope of methodological studies is quite extensive and includes, but is not limited to, topics as diverse as: research question formulation [ 11 ]; adherence to reporting guidelines [ 12 , 13 , 14 ] and consistency in reporting [ 15 ]; approaches to study analysis [ 16 ]; investigating the credibility of analyses [ 17 ]; and studies that synthesize these methodological studies [ 18 ]. While the nomenclature of methodological studies is not uniform, the intents and purposes of these studies remain fairly consistent – to describe or analyze methods in primary or secondary studies. As such, methodological studies may also be classified as a subtype of observational studies.

Parallel to this are experimental studies that compare different methods. Even though they play an important role in informing optimal research methods, experimental methodological studies are beyond the scope of this paper. Examples of such studies include the randomized trials by Buscemi et al., comparing single data extraction to double data extraction [ 19 ], and Carrasco-Labra et al., comparing approaches to presenting findings in Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) summary of findings tables [ 20 ]. In these studies, the unit of analysis is the person or groups of individuals applying the methods. We also direct readers to the Studies Within a Trial (SWAT) and Studies Within a Review (SWAR) programme operated through the Hub for Trials Methodology Research, for further reading as a potential useful resource for these types of experimental studies [ 21 ]. Lastly, this paper is not meant to inform the conduct of research using computational simulation and mathematical modeling for which some guidance already exists [ 22 ], or studies on the development of methods using consensus-based approaches.

When should we conduct a methodological study?

Methodological studies occupy a unique niche in health research that allows them to inform methodological advances. Methodological studies should also be conducted as pre-cursors to reporting guideline development, as they provide an opportunity to understand current practices, and help to identify the need for guidance and gaps in methodological or reporting quality. For example, the development of the popular Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were preceded by methodological studies identifying poor reporting practices [ 23 , 24 ]. In these instances, after the reporting guidelines are published, methodological studies can also be used to monitor uptake of the guidelines.

These studies can also be conducted to inform the state of the art for design, analysis and reporting practices across different types of health research fields, with the aim of improving research practices, and preventing or reducing research waste. For example, Samaan et al. conducted a scoping review of adherence to different reporting guidelines in health care literature [ 18 ]. Methodological studies can also be used to determine the factors associated with reporting practices. For example, Abbade et al. investigated journal characteristics associated with the use of the Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (PICOT) format in framing research questions in trials of venous ulcer disease [ 11 ].

How often are methodological studies conducted?

There is no clear answer to this question. Based on a search of PubMed, the use of related terms (“methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study”) – and therefore, the number of methodological studies – is on the rise. However, many other terms are used to describe methodological studies. There are also many studies that explore design, conduct, analysis or reporting of research reports, but that do not use any specific terms to describe or label their study design in terms of “methodology”. This diversity in nomenclature makes a census of methodological studies elusive. Appropriate terminology and key words for methodological studies are needed to facilitate improved accessibility for end-users.

Why do we conduct methodological studies?

Methodological studies provide information on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary and secondary research and can be used to appraise quality, quantity, completeness, accuracy and consistency of health research. These issues can be explored in specific fields, journals, databases, geographical regions and time periods. For example, Areia et al. explored the quality of reporting of endoscopic diagnostic studies in gastroenterology [ 25 ]; Knol et al. investigated the reporting of p -values in baseline tables in randomized trial published in high impact journals [ 26 ]; Chen et al. describe adherence to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement in Chinese Journals [ 27 ]; and Hopewell et al. describe the effect of editors’ implementation of CONSORT guidelines on reporting of abstracts over time [ 28 ]. Methodological studies provide useful information to researchers, clinicians, editors, publishers and users of health literature. As a result, these studies have been at the cornerstone of important methodological developments in the past two decades and have informed the development of many health research guidelines including the highly cited CONSORT statement [ 5 ].

Where can we find methodological studies?

Methodological studies can be found in most common biomedical bibliographic databases (e.g. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science). However, the biggest caveat is that methodological studies are hard to identify in the literature due to the wide variety of names used and the lack of comprehensive databases dedicated to them. A handful can be found in the Cochrane Library as “Cochrane Methodology Reviews”, but these studies only cover methodological issues related to systematic reviews. Previous attempts to catalogue all empirical studies of methods used in reviews were abandoned 10 years ago [ 29 ]. In other databases, a variety of search terms may be applied with different levels of sensitivity and specificity.

Some frequently asked questions about methodological studies

In this section, we have outlined responses to questions that might help inform the conduct of methodological studies.

Q: How should I select research reports for my methodological study?

A: Selection of research reports for a methodological study depends on the research question and eligibility criteria. Once a clear research question is set and the nature of literature one desires to review is known, one can then begin the selection process. Selection may begin with a broad search, especially if the eligibility criteria are not apparent. For example, a methodological study of Cochrane Reviews of HIV would not require a complex search as all eligible studies can easily be retrieved from the Cochrane Library after checking a few boxes [ 30 ]. On the other hand, a methodological study of subgroup analyses in trials of gastrointestinal oncology would require a search to find such trials, and further screening to identify trials that conducted a subgroup analysis [ 31 ].

The strategies used for identifying participants in observational studies can apply here. One may use a systematic search to identify all eligible studies. If the number of eligible studies is unmanageable, a random sample of articles can be expected to provide comparable results if it is sufficiently large [ 32 ]. For example, Wilson et al. used a random sample of trials from the Cochrane Stroke Group’s Trial Register to investigate completeness of reporting [ 33 ]. It is possible that a simple random sample would lead to underrepresentation of units (i.e. research reports) that are smaller in number. This is relevant if the investigators wish to compare multiple groups but have too few units in one group. In this case a stratified sample would help to create equal groups. For example, in a methodological study comparing Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, Kahale et al. drew random samples from both groups [ 34 ]. Alternatively, systematic or purposeful sampling strategies can be used and we encourage researchers to justify their selected approaches based on the study objective.

Q: How many databases should I search?

A: The number of databases one should search would depend on the approach to sampling, which can include targeting the entire “population” of interest or a sample of that population. If you are interested in including the entire target population for your research question, or drawing a random or systematic sample from it, then a comprehensive and exhaustive search for relevant articles is required. In this case, we recommend using systematic approaches for searching electronic databases (i.e. at least 2 databases with a replicable and time stamped search strategy). The results of your search will constitute a sampling frame from which eligible studies can be drawn.

Alternatively, if your approach to sampling is purposeful, then we recommend targeting the database(s) or data sources (e.g. journals, registries) that include the information you need. For example, if you are conducting a methodological study of high impact journals in plastic surgery and they are all indexed in PubMed, you likely do not need to search any other databases. You may also have a comprehensive list of all journals of interest and can approach your search using the journal names in your database search (or by accessing the journal archives directly from the journal’s website). Even though one could also search journals’ web pages directly, using a database such as PubMed has multiple advantages, such as the use of filters, so the search can be narrowed down to a certain period, or study types of interest. Furthermore, individual journals’ web sites may have different search functionalities, which do not necessarily yield a consistent output.

Q: Should I publish a protocol for my methodological study?

A: A protocol is a description of intended research methods. Currently, only protocols for clinical trials require registration [ 35 ]. Protocols for systematic reviews are encouraged but no formal recommendation exists. The scientific community welcomes the publication of protocols because they help protect against selective outcome reporting, the use of post hoc methodologies to embellish results, and to help avoid duplication of efforts [ 36 ]. While the latter two risks exist in methodological research, the negative consequences may be substantially less than for clinical outcomes. In a sample of 31 methodological studies, 7 (22.6%) referenced a published protocol [ 9 ]. In the Cochrane Library, there are 15 protocols for methodological reviews (21 July 2020). This suggests that publishing protocols for methodological studies is not uncommon.

Authors can consider publishing their study protocol in a scholarly journal as a manuscript. Advantages of such publication include obtaining peer-review feedback about the planned study, and easy retrieval by searching databases such as PubMed. The disadvantages in trying to publish protocols includes delays associated with manuscript handling and peer review, as well as costs, as few journals publish study protocols, and those journals mostly charge article-processing fees [ 37 ]. Authors who would like to make their protocol publicly available without publishing it in scholarly journals, could deposit their study protocols in publicly available repositories, such as the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ).

Q: How to appraise the quality of a methodological study?

A: To date, there is no published tool for appraising the risk of bias in a methodological study, but in principle, a methodological study could be considered as a type of observational study. Therefore, during conduct or appraisal, care should be taken to avoid the biases common in observational studies [ 38 ]. These biases include selection bias, comparability of groups, and ascertainment of exposure or outcome. In other words, to generate a representative sample, a comprehensive reproducible search may be necessary to build a sampling frame. Additionally, random sampling may be necessary to ensure that all the included research reports have the same probability of being selected, and the screening and selection processes should be transparent and reproducible. To ensure that the groups compared are similar in all characteristics, matching, random sampling or stratified sampling can be used. Statistical adjustments for between-group differences can also be applied at the analysis stage. Finally, duplicate data extraction can reduce errors in assessment of exposures or outcomes.

Q: Should I justify a sample size?

A: In all instances where one is not using the target population (i.e. the group to which inferences from the research report are directed) [ 39 ], a sample size justification is good practice. The sample size justification may take the form of a description of what is expected to be achieved with the number of articles selected, or a formal sample size estimation that outlines the number of articles required to answer the research question with a certain precision and power. Sample size justifications in methodological studies are reasonable in the following instances:

Comparing two groups

Determining a proportion, mean or another quantifier

Determining factors associated with an outcome using regression-based analyses

For example, El Dib et al. computed a sample size requirement for a methodological study of diagnostic strategies in randomized trials, based on a confidence interval approach [ 40 ].

Q: What should I call my study?

A: Other terms which have been used to describe/label methodological studies include “ methodological review ”, “methodological survey” , “meta-epidemiological study” , “systematic review” , “systematic survey”, “meta-research”, “research-on-research” and many others. We recommend that the study nomenclature be clear, unambiguous, informative and allow for appropriate indexing. Methodological study nomenclature that should be avoided includes “ systematic review” – as this will likely be confused with a systematic review of a clinical question. “ Systematic survey” may also lead to confusion about whether the survey was systematic (i.e. using a preplanned methodology) or a survey using “ systematic” sampling (i.e. a sampling approach using specific intervals to determine who is selected) [ 32 ]. Any of the above meanings of the words “ systematic” may be true for methodological studies and could be potentially misleading. “ Meta-epidemiological study” is ideal for indexing, but not very informative as it describes an entire field. The term “ review ” may point towards an appraisal or “review” of the design, conduct, analysis or reporting (or methodological components) of the targeted research reports, yet it has also been used to describe narrative reviews [ 41 , 42 ]. The term “ survey ” is also in line with the approaches used in many methodological studies [ 9 ], and would be indicative of the sampling procedures of this study design. However, in the absence of guidelines on nomenclature, the term “ methodological study ” is broad enough to capture most of the scenarios of such studies.

Q: Should I account for clustering in my methodological study?

A: Data from methodological studies are often clustered. For example, articles coming from a specific source may have different reporting standards (e.g. the Cochrane Library). Articles within the same journal may be similar due to editorial practices and policies, reporting requirements and endorsement of guidelines. There is emerging evidence that these are real concerns that should be accounted for in analyses [ 43 ]. Some cluster variables are described in the section: “ What variables are relevant to methodological studies?”

A variety of modelling approaches can be used to account for correlated data, including the use of marginal, fixed or mixed effects regression models with appropriate computation of standard errors [ 44 ]. For example, Kosa et al. used generalized estimation equations to account for correlation of articles within journals [ 15 ]. Not accounting for clustering could lead to incorrect p -values, unduly narrow confidence intervals, and biased estimates [ 45 ].

Q: Should I extract data in duplicate?

A: Yes. Duplicate data extraction takes more time but results in less errors [ 19 ]. Data extraction errors in turn affect the effect estimate [ 46 ], and therefore should be mitigated. Duplicate data extraction should be considered in the absence of other approaches to minimize extraction errors. However, much like systematic reviews, this area will likely see rapid new advances with machine learning and natural language processing technologies to support researchers with screening and data extraction [ 47 , 48 ]. However, experience plays an important role in the quality of extracted data and inexperienced extractors should be paired with experienced extractors [ 46 , 49 ].

Q: Should I assess the risk of bias of research reports included in my methodological study?

A : Risk of bias is most useful in determining the certainty that can be placed in the effect measure from a study. In methodological studies, risk of bias may not serve the purpose of determining the trustworthiness of results, as effect measures are often not the primary goal of methodological studies. Determining risk of bias in methodological studies is likely a practice borrowed from systematic review methodology, but whose intrinsic value is not obvious in methodological studies. When it is part of the research question, investigators often focus on one aspect of risk of bias. For example, Speich investigated how blinding was reported in surgical trials [ 50 ], and Abraha et al., investigated the application of intention-to-treat analyses in systematic reviews and trials [ 51 ].

Q: What variables are relevant to methodological studies?

A: There is empirical evidence that certain variables may inform the findings in a methodological study. We outline some of these and provide a brief overview below:

Country: Countries and regions differ in their research cultures, and the resources available to conduct research. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that there may be differences in methodological features across countries. Methodological studies have reported loco-regional differences in reporting quality [ 52 , 53 ]. This may also be related to challenges non-English speakers face in publishing papers in English.

Authors’ expertise: The inclusion of authors with expertise in research methodology, biostatistics, and scientific writing is likely to influence the end-product. Oltean et al. found that among randomized trials in orthopaedic surgery, the use of analyses that accounted for clustering was more likely when specialists (e.g. statistician, epidemiologist or clinical trials methodologist) were included on the study team [ 54 ]. Fleming et al. found that including methodologists in the review team was associated with appropriate use of reporting guidelines [ 55 ].

Source of funding and conflicts of interest: Some studies have found that funded studies report better [ 56 , 57 ], while others do not [ 53 , 58 ]. The presence of funding would indicate the availability of resources deployed to ensure optimal design, conduct, analysis and reporting. However, the source of funding may introduce conflicts of interest and warrant assessment. For example, Kaiser et al. investigated the effect of industry funding on obesity or nutrition randomized trials and found that reporting quality was similar [ 59 ]. Thomas et al. looked at reporting quality of long-term weight loss trials and found that industry funded studies were better [ 60 ]. Kan et al. examined the association between industry funding and “positive trials” (trials reporting a significant intervention effect) and found that industry funding was highly predictive of a positive trial [ 61 ]. This finding is similar to that of a recent Cochrane Methodology Review by Hansen et al. [ 62 ]

Journal characteristics: Certain journals’ characteristics may influence the study design, analysis or reporting. Characteristics such as journal endorsement of guidelines [ 63 , 64 ], and Journal Impact Factor (JIF) have been shown to be associated with reporting [ 63 , 65 , 66 , 67 ].

Study size (sample size/number of sites): Some studies have shown that reporting is better in larger studies [ 53 , 56 , 58 ].

Year of publication: It is reasonable to assume that design, conduct, analysis and reporting of research will change over time. Many studies have demonstrated improvements in reporting over time or after the publication of reporting guidelines [ 68 , 69 ].

Type of intervention: In a methodological study of reporting quality of weight loss intervention studies, Thabane et al. found that trials of pharmacologic interventions were reported better than trials of non-pharmacologic interventions [ 70 ].

Interactions between variables: Complex interactions between the previously listed variables are possible. High income countries with more resources may be more likely to conduct larger studies and incorporate a variety of experts. Authors in certain countries may prefer certain journals, and journal endorsement of guidelines and editorial policies may change over time.

Q: Should I focus only on high impact journals?

A: Investigators may choose to investigate only high impact journals because they are more likely to influence practice and policy, or because they assume that methodological standards would be higher. However, the JIF may severely limit the scope of articles included and may skew the sample towards articles with positive findings. The generalizability and applicability of findings from a handful of journals must be examined carefully, especially since the JIF varies over time. Even among journals that are all “high impact”, variations exist in methodological standards.

Q: Can I conduct a methodological study of qualitative research?

A: Yes. Even though a lot of methodological research has been conducted in the quantitative research field, methodological studies of qualitative studies are feasible. Certain databases that catalogue qualitative research including the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) have defined subject headings that are specific to methodological research (e.g. “research methodology”). Alternatively, one could also conduct a qualitative methodological review; that is, use qualitative approaches to synthesize methodological issues in qualitative studies.

Q: What reporting guidelines should I use for my methodological study?

A: There is no guideline that covers the entire scope of methodological studies. One adaptation of the PRISMA guidelines has been published, which works well for studies that aim to use the entire target population of research reports [ 71 ]. However, it is not widely used (40 citations in 2 years as of 09 December 2019), and methodological studies that are designed as cross-sectional or before-after studies require a more fit-for purpose guideline. A more encompassing reporting guideline for a broad range of methodological studies is currently under development [ 72 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, the requirements for scientific reporting should be respected, and authors of methodological studies should focus on transparency and reproducibility.

Q: What are the potential threats to validity and how can I avoid them?

A: Methodological studies may be compromised by a lack of internal or external validity. The main threats to internal validity in methodological studies are selection and confounding bias. Investigators must ensure that the methods used to select articles does not make them differ systematically from the set of articles to which they would like to make inferences. For example, attempting to make extrapolations to all journals after analyzing high-impact journals would be misleading.

Many factors (confounders) may distort the association between the exposure and outcome if the included research reports differ with respect to these factors [ 73 ]. For example, when examining the association between source of funding and completeness of reporting, it may be necessary to account for journals that endorse the guidelines. Confounding bias can be addressed by restriction, matching and statistical adjustment [ 73 ]. Restriction appears to be the method of choice for many investigators who choose to include only high impact journals or articles in a specific field. For example, Knol et al. examined the reporting of p -values in baseline tables of high impact journals [ 26 ]. Matching is also sometimes used. In the methodological study of non-randomized interventional studies of elective ventral hernia repair, Parker et al. matched prospective studies with retrospective studies and compared reporting standards [ 74 ]. Some other methodological studies use statistical adjustments. For example, Zhang et al. used regression techniques to determine the factors associated with missing participant data in trials [ 16 ].

With regard to external validity, researchers interested in conducting methodological studies must consider how generalizable or applicable their findings are. This should tie in closely with the research question and should be explicit. For example. Findings from methodological studies on trials published in high impact cardiology journals cannot be assumed to be applicable to trials in other fields. However, investigators must ensure that their sample truly represents the target sample either by a) conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive search, or b) using an appropriate and justified, randomly selected sample of research reports.

Even applicability to high impact journals may vary based on the investigators’ definition, and over time. For example, for high impact journals in the field of general medicine, Bouwmeester et al. included the Annals of Internal Medicine (AIM), BMJ, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet, the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), and PLoS Medicine ( n  = 6) [ 75 ]. In contrast, the high impact journals selected in the methodological study by Schiller et al. were BMJ, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM ( n  = 4) [ 76 ]. Another methodological study by Kosa et al. included AIM, BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and NEJM ( n  = 5). In the methodological study by Thabut et al., journals with a JIF greater than 5 were considered to be high impact. Riado Minguez et al. used first quartile journals in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) for a specific year to determine “high impact” [ 77 ]. Ultimately, the definition of high impact will be based on the number of journals the investigators are willing to include, the year of impact and the JIF cut-off [ 78 ]. We acknowledge that the term “generalizability” may apply differently for methodological studies, especially when in many instances it is possible to include the entire target population in the sample studied.

Finally, methodological studies are not exempt from information bias which may stem from discrepancies in the included research reports [ 79 ], errors in data extraction, or inappropriate interpretation of the information extracted. Likewise, publication bias may also be a concern in methodological studies, but such concepts have not yet been explored.

A proposed framework

In order to inform discussions about methodological studies, the development of guidance for what should be reported, we have outlined some key features of methodological studies that can be used to classify them. For each of the categories outlined below, we provide an example. In our experience, the choice of approach to completing a methodological study can be informed by asking the following four questions:

What is the aim?

Methodological studies that investigate bias

A methodological study may be focused on exploring sources of bias in primary or secondary studies (meta-bias), or how bias is analyzed. We have taken care to distinguish bias (i.e. systematic deviations from the truth irrespective of the source) from reporting quality or completeness (i.e. not adhering to a specific reporting guideline or norm). An example of where this distinction would be important is in the case of a randomized trial with no blinding. This study (depending on the nature of the intervention) would be at risk of performance bias. However, if the authors report that their study was not blinded, they would have reported adequately. In fact, some methodological studies attempt to capture both “quality of conduct” and “quality of reporting”, such as Richie et al., who reported on the risk of bias in randomized trials of pharmacy practice interventions [ 80 ]. Babic et al. investigated how risk of bias was used to inform sensitivity analyses in Cochrane reviews [ 81 ]. Further, biases related to choice of outcomes can also be explored. For example, Tan et al investigated differences in treatment effect size based on the outcome reported [ 82 ].

Methodological studies that investigate quality (or completeness) of reporting

Methodological studies may report quality of reporting against a reporting checklist (i.e. adherence to guidelines) or against expected norms. For example, Croituro et al. report on the quality of reporting in systematic reviews published in dermatology journals based on their adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 83 ], and Khan et al. described the quality of reporting of harms in randomized controlled trials published in high impact cardiovascular journals based on the CONSORT extension for harms [ 84 ]. Other methodological studies investigate reporting of certain features of interest that may not be part of formally published checklists or guidelines. For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described how often the implications for research are elaborated using the Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (EPICOT) format [ 30 ].

Methodological studies that investigate the consistency of reporting

Sometimes investigators may be interested in how consistent reports of the same research are, as it is expected that there should be consistency between: conference abstracts and published manuscripts; manuscript abstracts and manuscript main text; and trial registration and published manuscript. For example, Rosmarakis et al. investigated consistency between conference abstracts and full text manuscripts [ 85 ].

Methodological studies that investigate factors associated with reporting

In addition to identifying issues with reporting in primary and secondary studies, authors of methodological studies may be interested in determining the factors that are associated with certain reporting practices. Many methodological studies incorporate this, albeit as a secondary outcome. For example, Farrokhyar et al. investigated the factors associated with reporting quality in randomized trials of coronary artery bypass grafting surgery [ 53 ].

Methodological studies that investigate methods

Methodological studies may also be used to describe methods or compare methods, and the factors associated with methods. Muller et al. described the methods used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies [ 86 ].

Methodological studies that summarize other methodological studies

Some methodological studies synthesize results from other methodological studies. For example, Li et al. conducted a scoping review of methodological reviews that investigated consistency between full text and abstracts in primary biomedical research [ 87 ].

Methodological studies that investigate nomenclature and terminology

Some methodological studies may investigate the use of names and terms in health research. For example, Martinic et al. investigated the definitions of systematic reviews used in overviews of systematic reviews (OSRs), meta-epidemiological studies and epidemiology textbooks [ 88 ].

Other types of methodological studies

In addition to the previously mentioned experimental methodological studies, there may exist other types of methodological studies not captured here.

What is the design?

Methodological studies that are descriptive

Most methodological studies are purely descriptive and report their findings as counts (percent) and means (standard deviation) or medians (interquartile range). For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described the reporting of research recommendations in Cochrane HIV systematic reviews [ 30 ]. Gohari et al. described the quality of reporting of randomized trials in diabetes in Iran [ 12 ].

Methodological studies that are analytical

Some methodological studies are analytical wherein “analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables, such as between an exposure and a disease.” [ 89 ] In the case of methodological studies all these investigations are possible. For example, Kosa et al. investigated the association between agreement in primary outcome from trial registry to published manuscript and study covariates. They found that larger and more recent studies were more likely to have agreement [ 15 ]. Tricco et al. compared the conclusion statements from Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews with a meta-analysis of the primary outcome and found that non-Cochrane reviews were more likely to report positive findings. These results are a test of the null hypothesis that the proportions of Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews that report positive results are equal [ 90 ].

What is the sampling strategy?

Methodological studies that include the target population

Methodological reviews with narrow research questions may be able to include the entire target population. For example, in the methodological study of Cochrane HIV systematic reviews, Mbuagbaw et al. included all of the available studies ( n  = 103) [ 30 ].

Methodological studies that include a sample of the target population

Many methodological studies use random samples of the target population [ 33 , 91 , 92 ]. Alternatively, purposeful sampling may be used, limiting the sample to a subset of research-related reports published within a certain time period, or in journals with a certain ranking or on a topic. Systematic sampling can also be used when random sampling may be challenging to implement.

What is the unit of analysis?

Methodological studies with a research report as the unit of analysis

Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.

Methodological studies with a design, analysis or reporting item as the unit of analysis

Some methodological studies report on items which may occur more than once per article. For example, Paquette et al. report on subgroup analyses in Cochrane reviews of atrial fibrillation in which 17 systematic reviews planned 56 subgroup analyses [ 93 ].

This framework is outlined in Fig.  2 .

A proposed framework for methodological studies

Conclusions

Methodological studies have examined different aspects of reporting such as quality, completeness, consistency and adherence to reporting guidelines. As such, many of the methodological study examples cited in this tutorial are related to reporting. However, as an evolving field, the scope of research questions that can be addressed by methodological studies is expected to increase.

In this paper we have outlined the scope and purpose of methodological studies, along with examples of instances in which various approaches have been used. In the absence of formal guidance on the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of methodological studies, we have provided some advice to help make methodological studies consistent. This advice is grounded in good contemporary scientific practice. Generally, the research question should tie in with the sampling approach and planned analysis. We have also highlighted the variables that may inform findings from methodological studies. Lastly, we have provided suggestions for ways in which authors can categorize their methodological studies to inform their design and analysis.

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Abbreviations

Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials

Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe

Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations

Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe

Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses

Studies Within a Review

Studies Within a Trial

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Lawrence Mbuagbaw, Daeria O. Lawson & Lehana Thabane

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Mbuagbaw, L., Lawson, D.O., Puljak, L. et al. A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and why. BMC Med Res Methodol 20 , 226 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-01107-7

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Introduction to Research Methodology

• First Online: 01 March 2024

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• Animesh Hazari 2  

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The term “research methodology” most often echoes among students, research scholars, and faculty members. Though the application of research methodology is diverse, we shall focus on the content specific to academia and industry. This book would be most helpful to health science students and allow them to learn the process of research in a simple and step-by-step process. In my personal experience, I have found that students are very apprehensive when it comes to learning research methodology as a subject. They often encounter problems in understanding the research methodology as the process starts and throughout the course. At times, they may have completed their research but failed to understand the whole process of how scientifically it was conducted.

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Hazari, A. (2023). Introduction to Research Methodology. In: Research Methodology for Allied Health Professionals. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8925-6_1

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE:   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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What is research methodology?

The basics of research methodology

Why do you need a research methodology, what needs to be included, why do you need to document your research method, what are the different types of research instruments, qualitative / quantitative / mixed research methodologies, how do you choose the best research methodology for you, frequently asked questions about research methodology, related articles.

When you’re working on your first piece of academic research, there are many different things to focus on, and it can be overwhelming to stay on top of everything. This is especially true of budding or inexperienced researchers.

If you’ve never put together a research proposal before or find yourself in a position where you need to explain your research methodology decisions, there are a few things you need to be aware of.

Once you understand the ins and outs, handling academic research in the future will be less intimidating. We break down the basics below:

A research methodology encompasses the way in which you intend to carry out your research. This includes how you plan to tackle things like collection methods, statistical analysis, participant observations, and more.

You can think of your research methodology as being a formula. One part will be how you plan on putting your research into practice, and another will be why you feel this is the best way to approach it. Your research methodology is ultimately a methodological and systematic plan to resolve your research problem.

In short, you are explaining how you will take your idea and turn it into a study, which in turn will produce valid and reliable results that are in accordance with the aims and objectives of your research. This is true whether your paper plans to make use of qualitative methods or quantitative methods.

The purpose of a research methodology is to explain the reasoning behind your approach to your research - you'll need to support your collection methods, methods of analysis, and other key points of your work.

Think of it like writing a plan or an outline for you what you intend to do.

When carrying out research, it can be easy to go off-track or depart from your standard methodology.

Tip: Having a methodology keeps you accountable and on track with your original aims and objectives, and gives you a suitable and sound plan to keep your project manageable, smooth, and effective.

With all that said, how do you write out your standard approach to a research methodology?

As a general plan, your methodology should include the following information:

• Your research method.  You need to state whether you plan to use quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis, or mixed-method research methods. This will often be determined by what you hope to achieve with your research.
• Explain your reasoning. Why are you taking this methodological approach? Why is this particular methodology the best way to answer your research problem and achieve your objectives?
• Explain your instruments.  This will mainly be about your collection methods. There are varying instruments to use such as interviews, physical surveys, questionnaires, for example. Your methodology will need to detail your reasoning in choosing a particular instrument for your research.
• What will you do with your results?  How are you going to analyze the data once you have gathered it?
• Advise your reader.  If there is anything in your research methodology that your reader might be unfamiliar with, you should explain it in more detail. For example, you should give any background information to your methods that might be relevant or provide your reasoning if you are conducting your research in a non-standard way.
• How will your sampling process go?  What will your sampling procedure be and why? For example, if you will collect data by carrying out semi-structured or unstructured interviews, how will you choose your interviewees and how will you conduct the interviews themselves?
• Any practical limitations?  You should discuss any limitations you foresee being an issue when you’re carrying out your research.

In any dissertation, thesis, or academic journal, you will always find a chapter dedicated to explaining the research methodology of the person who carried out the study, also referred to as the methodology section of the work.

A good research methodology will explain what you are going to do and why, while a poor methodology will lead to a messy or disorganized approach.

You should also be able to justify in this section your reasoning for why you intend to carry out your research in a particular way, especially if it might be a particularly unique method.

Having a sound methodology in place can also help you with the following:

• When another researcher at a later date wishes to try and replicate your research, they will need your explanations and guidelines.
• In the event that you receive any criticism or questioning on the research you carried out at a later point, you will be able to refer back to it and succinctly explain the how and why of your approach.
• It provides you with a plan to follow throughout your research. When you are drafting your methodology approach, you need to be sure that the method you are using is the right one for your goal. This will help you with both explaining and understanding your method.
• It affords you the opportunity to document from the outset what you intend to achieve with your research, from start to finish.

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.

The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology.

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research.

Generally, they can be grouped as follows:

• Interviews (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay-style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take.

It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

There are three different types of methodologies, and they are distinguished by whether they focus on words, numbers, or both.

➡️ Want to learn more about the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, and how to use both methods? Check out our guide for that!

If you've done your due diligence, you'll have an idea of which methodology approach is best suited to your research.

It’s likely that you will have carried out considerable reading and homework before you reach this point and you may have taken inspiration from other similar studies that have yielded good results.

Still, it is important to consider different options before setting your research in stone. Exploring different options available will help you to explain why the choice you ultimately make is preferable to other methods.

If proving your research problem requires you to gather large volumes of numerical data to test hypotheses, a quantitative research method is likely to provide you with the most usable results.

If instead you’re looking to try and learn more about people, and their perception of events, your methodology is more exploratory in nature and would therefore probably be better served using a qualitative research methodology.

It helps to always bring things back to the question: what do I want to achieve with my research?

Once you have conducted your research, you need to analyze it. Here are some helpful guides for qualitative data analysis:

➡️  How to do a content analysis

➡️  How to do a thematic analysis

➡️  How to do a rhetorical analysis

Research methodology refers to the techniques used to find and analyze information for a study, ensuring that the results are valid, reliable and that they address the research objective.

Data can typically be organized into four different categories or methods: observational, experimental, simulation, and derived.

Writing a methodology section is a process of introducing your methods and instruments, discussing your analysis, providing more background information, addressing your research limitations, and more.

Your research methodology section will need a clear research question and proposed research approach. You'll need to add a background, introduce your research question, write your methodology and add the works you cited during your data collecting phase.

The research methodology section of your study will indicate how valid your findings are and how well-informed your paper is. It also assists future researchers planning to use the same methodology, who want to cite your study or replicate it.

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Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

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Table of Contents

Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.

Understanding different research methods:

There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.

Qualitative vs quantitative research:

When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories. 

Qualitative research methodology:

Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis. 

Quantitative research methodology:

The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.

Analysing qualitative vs quantitative data:

The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.

When to use qualitative vs quantitative research:

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.

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Research Process

Dissertation markers expect you to include the explanation of research process in methodology chapter. A typical research process comprises the following stages:

1. Selecting the research area . Your dissertation marker expects you to state that you have selected the research area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. Students often underestimate the importance of this first stage in the research process. If you find a research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.

2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses . The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions.

Accordingly, you need to mention in your dissertation that you have revised your research aims and objectives or hypotheses during the research process several times to get their final versions. It is critically important that you get confirmation from your supervisor regarding your research questions or hypotheses before moving forward with the work.

3. Conducting the literature review . Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and objective. This is because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed before and this task is a part of the literature review. Nevertheless, you will conduct the main part of the literature review after the formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.

4. Selecting data collection methods . Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative methods. In studies involving primary data collection, you need to write about advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) in detailed manner in methodology.

5. Collecting the primary data . You will have to start primary data collection only after detailed preparation. Sampling is an important element of this stage. You may have to conduct pilot data collection if you chose questionnaire primary data collection method. Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.

6. Data analysis . Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. This stage involves an extensive editing and coding of data. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative studies. In data analysis coding of primary data plays an instrumental role to reduce sample group responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing. Data analysis is discussed in Chapter 6 in great details.

7. Reaching conclusions . Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future research .

8. Completing the research . Following all of the stages described above, and organizing separate chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft. You need to prepare the first draft of your dissertation at least one month before the submission deadline. This is because you will need to have sufficient amount of time to address feedback to be provided by your supervisor.

Individual stages in the research process outlined above are interdependent and the sequence has to be maintained. Moreover, the process of any research tends to be iterative, meaning that you may have to return back to the previous stages of the research process several times for revisions and improvement. In other words, no stage of the research process is fully completed until the whole dissertation is completed.

John Dudovskiy

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HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA IN RESEARCH

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DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Description of the study area is the act of describing the characteristics, qualities and physical features of an area, location, neighbourhood, city or community that is being studied or investigated for research purposes. Describing a study area is an important part of research, not just to the researcher, but to all concerned both now and in the future.

The study area is sometimes referred to as a study site in research, some higher institutions refer to the description of the study area as the “ profile of the study area “. To properly give a detailed description of an area, the researcher should have an in-depth knowledge of the study area in the project , and this can only be possible by reviewing other related materials in the form of published Journals, textbooks, etc., by academicians within a particular field of study or when the researcher is familiar with the neighbourhood or area in question.

In a dissertation, the description of a study area usually comes under Chapter Three (in most cases) except in some institutions with special formats for presenting research papers. But the key point is that the captions on whichever chapter this subject is mentioned are usually written as “A Brief Description of Study Area” . This is not to limit the information provided but to apply some sort of concision in that it should be skillfully couched to enable a good flow in the presentation without creating confusion.

In summary, there are three aspects to the description of study area – (brief) (description) (study area)

The fact that it is termed brief does not necessarily mean it shouldn’t be detailed.

Your description should cover a broad spectrum of information; this would include location, geography, climatic condition, social infrastructure, vegetation, density, humidity, temperature, topography, terrain and so on.

The study area should be your area of coverage that is, your case study. Introducing information from other areas or regions will have no significance on the subject matter, hence your primary focus would be on the area your research is covering. At this point, you are expected to include maps of the study area (in colour).

What you’re expected to write is a detailed description of your study area to give your reader an idea of what your study area looks like. Get Samples 

Depending on the research topic, the pattern of describing the study area could vary;

If a project topic is focused on investigating issues or problems that concern a state or province the description will bother around everything that makes up the location. For example “ Evaluation of the Issues Affecting Girl-Child Education in FCT Abuja ” is a broad topic that focuses on FCT-Abuja as a case study, hence to describe the study area which in this case is FCT-Abuja, adequate data on everything that makes up or best describes Abuja as a Federal Capital Territory has to be brought in and properly described. The description should include the vegetation in Abuja, the population of Abuja, Abuja’s topography, its climatic condition, the culture of people living in Abuja, the terrain (that is, the flatness or sloppiness of Roads in Abuja), the nature of business, market data, rainfall, electricity, common food, the number of ethnic group in the territory, religion of residents among others.

The essence of the description of the study area is to enable an outsider to have an idea of the area or neighbourhood that is being researched, this knowledge will also help the readers to understand the body of your work and try to envision what your study is trying to pass across. It will also influence people’s judgment of the topic being researched.

If the project topic is centred on a particular catchment or neighbourhood for example “ A Critical Examination of Facilities Management Strategy on Public Properties – A Case Study of Central Bank of Nigeria Staff Quarters ” the description will take a different shape. In this case, it should include a brief summary of the neighborhood where the CBN staff quarters are located followed by a broad description of the CBN staff quarters environment and premises. Let’s look at the following example;

“ The CBN staff quarters is a large purpose-built residential estate for senior, intermediate and junior CBN staff members. It is properly fenced around its perimeter solid block walls with a giant double two-way gate at the main entrance and another small pedestrian gate by the side. The estate comprises of the following; 16 Blocks of 8 units of 2bedroom flats each totalling 128 flats, 12 Block of 8 units of 3bedroom flats each totalling another 97 flats, and 6 Blocks of 6 units of 3bedroom flats each totalling 36 flats with additional buildings at the rear for intermediate and junior staff. The senior staff also have a large garage for parking vehicles .”

In addition, a detailed description of the site and construction details of the buildings will beef up your work. For example:

“ The site is rectangular, it has a flat or table surface and properly drains off water during heavy downpours. The site measures approximately 22.32 hectares .”

The construction details should encompass; the type of floor, wall, doors, windows, ceiling, fittings, roof and the materials used in constructing them. For example, a brief description of the floor can be written like this “ The floor is made of mass concrete on hardcore filling well rammed over consolidated laterite and finished with terrazzo material ” The other building components (windows, doors, ceiling, wall, fitting and roof) should have their description proper done like the “floor”.

The facilities in the CBN staff estate should also come in the description. A short write-up can be done to explain to the reader or supervisor the available facilities installed and used in the CBN staff quarters, for example, “ The facilities provided in the CBN staff quarters are; water treatment plant, cameras, sewage treatment plant, generator house, heavy duty generator set to illuminate the premises, pumping machine (Sumo) to circulate water to all apartments, borehole, external lighting points and lawn tennis court for exercise .”

Sometimes an institution could be a case study of a project. Let’s use this project topic as an example “ An Analysis of the Maintenance and Management Problem of the University of Lagos Hostel Buildings ”.

To describe this study area the following sub-headings should be developed and expanded:

This involves the description of the University’s location, including the city and local government area where it is situated.

The History, Origin and Growth of the Study Area:

Tracing the historical background of the University of Lagos, its various campuses, colleges (college of medicine), the total size of the school premises, total number of staff and students (undergraduates and postgraduate students), annual enrollment of students, the various faculties and departments and other facilities attached to the universities and subsidiary campuses or learning institutions within and outside the state, or country is paramount.

Important : Make sure to include a colour map in your description to guide your readers and supervisor further.

SAMPLE OF DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

Frequently Asked Questions about the Description of Study Area.

What is the general description of the study area.

There is no such thing as a general description of the study area, the pattern of describing a particular area might differ from the way other areas are described. This is dependent on the type and nature of the area that is going to be described. No two locations have the same features, hence you cannot give a written account of locations A and B the same way, which is why the researcher will need to either visit the area of the study or source materials with comprehensive and recent information on a particular area to be described in the research paper.

Examples of areas of study?

The determination of a study area is dependent on the type or nature of the researchable problem that the researcher wants to solve. For example, an ideal study area for “Impact of indiscriminate dumps on children’s health” would be a neighbourhood that experiences a high volume of indiscriminate dumps such as ghettos, slum neighbourhoods, high-density or populated neighbourhoods etc.

Also, if a project topic is   “Impact of social media on junior secondary school subjects” the area of study will comprise a certain number of junior secondary schools in a particular area not necessarily the entire State, Region or Province. The area of study must be connected with the project topic, this is because the research problem is first identified before developing a topic around the problem. So, the research has to identify a problem, search for areas affected by the identified problem and then develop a topic that captures the problem and the area of study.

The following can represent an area of study; Primary and Secondary Schools, Communities, Organizations, Provinces, Streets, Local Government Areas, hospitals, Banks, TV and Radio Stations, Government Agencies, Military Barracks, Police Stations, Specialized Buildings, Events, Shrines, Layouts etc.

Some people may want to carry out simple research about their home or certain areas or components in their home, this could be academic or personal research about an identified problem in the home. Hence, examples of study areas at home would include, the premises, building structures, the environment, farmland or plantation farm, auxiliary facilities, recreational areas in the home, pool sites, cooking or baking area etc. depending on the project topic.

What is a study area in research?

Study areas are locations where a researcher plans to carry out an in-depth study about a topic or existing problem. This is usually indicated in the research proposal for the supervisor to vet and approve. If approved, the researcher or student is expected to visit the study area to observe and gather information related to the existing problem in that neighbourhood. A study area is also referred to as a study site or research site.

What is the importance of the study area in research?

The importance of the study area cannot be over-emphasized. I have taken time to explain this question in the article “ Reasons for Choosing a Study Area in Research ”.

Must a description of the study area in a project be broad?

No.  I mentioned earlier in this article that most research papers or projects require a brief description of your study area, so you could write a brief account of your study area in about one to three pages depending on how vast the area is. You don’t need to write more than is required, just provide the relevant information needed and you’re good.

Get complete samples of the Description of Study Areas here  

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20 Replies to “HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA IN RESEARCH” .

South Africa has been experiencing load-shedding

its educative

I am interested in your website. Currently I am preparing my thesis for completion of my MBA n Marketing. Thank you for your help.

Thank you Zelalem, you can send a message if you need further guide. I wish you success!

What if I choose a Senior high school in Enugu state? Am I going to write about the school or the State itself?

If your project topic is about a particular high school then the description should focus on the School itself not the State.

very good concept. Really I appreciate it.

Awesome, thanks Ray.

Helpful information .Thanks

Thank you Peres Bett.

How to write description of the study Area

This is great information just as I wanted it to be. thanks a lot man

Thanks Richard.

What important information should I include in the research area description? Regard Telkom University

What’s your study area?

My study area is Mbabane in Eswatini. However, am doing my thesis in an Asian University. Should my focus be with the Town or the entire Eswatini?

You may not be able to cover the entire Eswatini. So, delimit your study area to Mbabane. By the way, what’s your Thesis topic?

enquiry was very helpful

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3. Methodology of Research 3.1. Study Area and Target Population

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MASARAT E L I A S DURESSO (PhD)

Among the major root and tuber crops, anchote is a potential crop produced in Western parts of Ethiopia. In addition to food source, it takes wide portion in socioeconomic , cultural and medicinal value for the farming communities. To study the indigenous knowledge on utilization and conservation of anchote, ethno-botanical survey was conducted in 2012 for continuous three months (February, March and April) in Western part of Ethiopia. The landraces were also collected during survey. Forty nine anchote landraces were tested in 7x7 Simple Lattice Design at Wayu Tuqa District of East Wollega in 2012/013. The survey results showed that most of the respondents had sufficient experiences of growing Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn. Socioeconomic status of the households and ecological requirements was found to be an important factor affecting the use, management and conservation of the crop. The difference in level of education had no impact on conservation and use of Coccinia abyssinica. It was also observed that the older informants were more knowledgeable than the younger ones, as they knew much more about the different local cultivars and values of use. Data of the mean values of all experimental units were subjected to analysis of variance for RCBD. Flower width (61.22%) showed high heritability and medium heritability was recorded for flower length (52.24%), indicated that such characters were least affected by environmental modifications so that; selection based on phenotypic performance would be reliable. Low heritability were recorded for traits like root length (33.72%), Leaf width (21.53%), total root yield (20.6%), leaf length (17.19%), root diameter (8.33%) and low heritability were recorded for other to indicate environmental effect that constitutes a major portion of the total phenotypic variation signifying that management practice is better than selection to improve those traits. Genetic advance as percentage of the mean ranged from 2.45% for leaf length to 77.08% for flower width. Within these range a relatively high genetic advance as percent of the mean was observed for flower length (57.72%) and flower width (77.08 %). High value for heritability and genetic advance of the characters in current study provide information for the existence of wider genetic diversity among anchote landraces which offers high chances for improving several traits of the crop through simple selection. Cluster analysis showed that four divergent groups were formed. Each cluster known by their highest and lowest mean value and it is helpful for easy selection of parents with the desired traits for hybridization or selection program.

Urgessa T Bekabil

Deforestation is a growing problem in many parts of the tropical world and one of the affected countries is Ethiopia. The general objective of this study is to assess the effect of population growth on forest resource in East Wollega Zone in general and Haro Limu woreda in particular. The data used for the study were collected from 89 farm households heads drawn from the four kebeles of Haro Limmu district. Probability proportional to size sampling technique was employed to select the farm households from four peasant associations, which were selected by random sampling techniques. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. In addition, secondary data were extracted from relevant sources to supplement the data obtained from the survey. The result of this study reveals that population growth huge impact on forestry development in the ways of expanding agricultural land, using wood as energy sources and satisfying the input requirements in agricultural activity. Respondents use family planning services in reducing the impact of population growth on the forestry development.

addisu N Worku

Mersha Chanie

This study was conducted in Honkolo enclosed area found in Honkolo Wabe district of Arsi zone with in oromia region. The study objective was to critically assess the land use land cover change in Honkolo enclosed area, and explain socioeconomic and environmental impacts caused due to land use land cover change. To realize the objective data was collected from 95 sample rural households using questionnaire, 6 key informant interviews, and 4 Focus Group discussions with farmers and experts. Besides to this, satellite image of 30 meter resolution was also used to identify the land use and land cover change in the enclosed area with remote sensing and GIS software. The analysis of land use land cover change detection showed that farm land and settlement had been increasing from before the area was enclosed from human and animal interventions since 2010; the socioeconomic analysis revealed woody tree species that disappeared long time ago have been restored following the establishment of enclosures. Additionally, most of focus group discussion and key informant confirmed that they had obtained socio-economic and environmental benefits from the establishment of the area enclosures. From the analysis of the results on LULC it can be concluded that human interventions are the determinant factors for the changing land use and land cover. However, various problems were also identified such as shortages of firewood and scarcity of pastureland. Finally based on findings it is concluded that local community had got a positive attitude towards area enclosures practices. Therefore, close relationship among the local communities and other related bodies is essential for the success and effective management practices of area enclosures. Key words: Area enclosure, Land use/land over, land management, Land degradation, GIS, community participation

European Scientific Journal ESJ

Jiregna Garamu Tarafa

Abstract The main objective of this study was to examine, the population growth nexus land degradation in Nejo district. Correlation research design was used to carry out this study. Both quantitative and qualitative data used in the study. Primary and secondary data were used in this study. Non-probable sampling techniques were used to select the four peasant association from thirty-five of Nejo district, namely Walitate Agar, Bushane Alaltu, Micico Gorgise, and Lalisa Kemi. This was due to insufficient budget and time to include overall peasant associations in the district. Sampling formula used to determine sample of 99 households and were selected from the total of 3559 households using lottery method proportionally. Additional key informant like, DA (Development Agents) and district agricultural office head were interviewed and, model farmers participated in focus group discussion. Questionnaire presented to collect data from households, semi-structured interview used to complement data gathered using questionnaires from DA and district agricultural office.Focus group discussion also instruments used for data collection from model farmers. Finally, researcher undertakes field observation the land use and extent of physical land degradation. Quantitative data were analyzed using excel software package to compute its frequencies, percentage, means and standard deviation, Pearson correlation and linear regressions followed by discussion of the most important points. Data that were collected by semi-structure interview and open- ended questions were analyzed and interpreted in narrative approach to substantiate the quantitative information whenever required. Finally, the overall courses of the study was summarized with finding, conclusions some possible solution. The finding showed that as population growth non-cultivated areas added as crop land and the more use of other land uses for crop production. There is a significant negative correlation between areas land covered with grazing lands and population growth in the district.There is a significant negative correlation between areas of natural forest and population growth. Population growths have significant negative relationship with grazing lands. The population growths have significant positive relationship with grazing lands.The findings revealed that the population growth have no significant relationship with changes in areas of wet lands as.With respect to linear regressions were utilized to investigate the best indicators of changes in areas of forest plantation. The findings revealed that the population growth have significant positively relationship with forest plantation with hence population growth constitute the major determinants of land degradation as there were effect changing in land use cover of in Nejo district.The respondents were asked if they think that land degradation affects your livelihood. All of the respondents had agreed that land degradation affects their livelihood. The major costs of land degradation includes, reduced number of daily meals, reduced in quality of meals, withdrawal of children from school, poor health, lack of household energy consumptions such as fire wood & charcoal, decline in livestock caring capacity, decrease in range land, poverty and malnutrition, andinternalmigration. Based on finding the study drawn following recommendation the farmers need participate effectively throughout the entire district to assist in reducing the pressure on available land and vegetation resources in the district. The need to use alternative sources of energy like solar in medium and long-term and promote the growing of fast maturing tree species for sustainable charcoal production.

Temesgen Sadi

This study attempts to assess the challenges and prospects of community policing in Nejo town, Oromia regional state. In order to achieve this objective, the study employed descriptive research design and combination of quantitative and qualitative research approach. The study used both primary and secondary sources in order to touch its objectives. Primary data were gathered through questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion while secondary data were gathered through document analysis, books, journal and other document. Questionnaires were distributed and administered by the researcher with the help of enumerators. Structured questionnaires were filled by households of 01 and 04 kebeles. Interviews were conducted with police members, community leaders and justice sector participants to attain profound information. Similarly, FGD was conducted with respondents selected from police and community members. Data were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics and qualitative technique.The finding of the study revealed that, community and to some extent police have low understanding and perception toward community policing in the study area. In addition to this, the study identified institutional challenges, which include lack of coordination, lack of effective police service delivery, lack of professional police and police violation of human right. Similarly, the study identified social challenges affecting community policing, which include, lack of community participation, lack of police community relationship and lack of regular community policing forum. Under infrastructural challenges the study identified lack of adequate logistic support, lack of adequate budge and lack of resource to implement community policing effectively. The finding of the study also revealed that the practice of the key components of community policing mainly community partnership, problem solving and organizational transformations are not as such effective. Based on the finding of the study, the researcher recommends that enhancing awareness creation, effective coordination among the stakeholders, insuring transparency and accountability, building trust with community, establishing regular community policing forum, enhancing police capacity, allocating adequate budget and logistic support, improving community participation in order to sustain these strategies in the study area.

IJAR Indexing

This study attempted to arrive at the ways of indigenous practices for promoting sustainable land development in selected kebeles of Gimbi Woreda,West Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State. The study area is typical for the high potential coffee production, mixed farming, and cereal crops in the Southwestern Ethiopian highlands. Land is a precious natural resource which demands efficient management in order to use it in a sustainable manner. A cross sectional research design was employed with descriptive survey method. About 319 household heads were selected using simple random sampling technique from three kebeles (kebele: Lowest Administrative Division) which were chosen purposively. In addition, thirteen key informants and nine household heads for FGD were selected by purposive sampling technique. Data collection tools included questionnaire, focus group discussions, key informant interview and field observation. The factors that affect sustainable land management include land holding size, fragmentation, land ownership security, size of livestock, and availability of labor and farm tools, and education of farmers. Finally, based on the findings of the study, it has been recommended that farmers need to get basic education and family planning services. They have to be organized in team and get access to credit and saving services. The local knowledge of farmers has to be encouraged and supported through continuous training. A few selected breeds of livestock should be encouraged in order to reduce overgrazing.

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• DOI: 10.1108/dts-03-2024-0040
• Corpus ID: 272057826

Digital humanities in US academic libraries: case studies

• Kelda Habing , Lian Ruan
• Published in Digital Transformation and… 16 August 2024

23 References

Scanning the digital: using survey data to support digital scholarship initiatives at the university of mississippi, what contributes to a qualified digital humanities librarian and ideal digital humanities pedagogy an exploratory qualitative study, exploring the digital humanities research agenda: a text mining approach, digital humanities degrees and supplemental credentials in information schools (ischools), the wrong side of the spreadsheets: a life in the digital humanities, from collection curation to knowledge creation: exploring new roles of academic librarians in digital humanities research, teaching gis in a digital humanities environment, digital humanities research: interdisciplinary collaborations, themes and implications to library and information science, 17 librarians and one big undertaking: creating a digital project from start to finish, facilitating collaborative metadata creation for faculty-initiated digital projects, related papers.

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Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Cultivating multicultural christian youth ministry team leaders through covenant relationships with youth in kc and stl metro area churches.

Christopher D. Edin , Liberty University Follow

Rawlings School of Divinity

Doctor of Education in Christian Leadership (EdD)

Rob Van Engen

Multiculturalism, Competencies, Satisfactory, Youth Ministry Leaders, Paid Youth Leaders, Volunteer Youth Leaders, Adolescent Youth, Youth Ministry Attendees, Youth Fleeing Church

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Christianity | Leadership Studies

Recommended Citation

Edin, Christopher D., "Cultivating Multicultural Christian Youth Ministry Team Leaders Through Covenant Relationships With Youth in KC and STL Metro Area Churches" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5963. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5963

One significant challenge for today’s Christian churches involves bridging the gap between youth involvement in church after high school graduation and moving on to college (Owens, 2014). Owens (2014) asserts that today’s adolescents experience parental and church support during high school, but once they head off to college, they leave that support and stability at home. Students leave the church for many reasons. This study proposes that one significant reason is that Christian churches do not educate youth ministry team leaders on multiculturalism. This research explored satisfactory multicultural competencies necessary for youth ministry leaders to disciple youth by asking adult youth ministry leaders and adolescent youth ministry attendees to respond to questionnaires, essays, and surveys to develop essential satisfactory multicultural competencies. This study drew theoretical guidance from an explanatory sequential mixed-methods theory, commencing with a quantitative longitudinal study using closed-ended questionnaires and concluding with qualitative essays and surveys to enhance the quantitative findings. This mixed-methods research describes the satisfactory multicultural competencies essential to empower Christian youth ministry leaders to reach the multicultural youth within Kansas City and St. Louis metro area churches. Kite (2015) reports that multicultural competencies in education require valuing students’ racial diversity and racial differences. Awareness of cultural biases and virtues, learning to view others' worlds, and developing culturally appropriate interpersonal skills legitimize cultural competence. Discussing satisfactory multicultural competence helps transfer these traits from one to another (Kite, 2015).

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• Published: 28 August 2024

How does online postal self-sampling (OPSS) shape access to testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)? A qualitative study of service users

• Tommer Spence 1 ,
• Alison Howarth 2 ,
• David Reid 2 ,
• Jessica Sheringham 1 ,
• Vanessa Apea 3 ,
• David Crundwell 4 ,
• Sara Day 5 ,
• Claire Dewsnap 6 ,
• Louise Jackson 7 ,
• Catherine H. Mercer 2 ,
• Hamish Mohammed 8 ,
• Jonathan D. C. Ross 9 ,
• Ann Sullivan 5 ,
• Andy Williams 3 ,
• Andrew Winter 10 ,
• Geoff Wong 11 ,
• Fiona Burns 2   na1 &
• Jo Gibbs 2   na1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2339 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

7 Altmetric

Metrics details

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a serious public health issue in many countries. Online postal self-sampling (OPSS) is increasingly used to test for STIs, a trend accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. There remains limited understanding of how service users experience OPSS and what leads them to access it over clinic-based services, or vice versa. This research seeks to address these gaps, by undertaking a large qualitative study which sits within the ASSIST study, a mixed-methods, realist evaluation of OPSS.

Participants were recruited via clinic-based and online sexual health services in three case study areas in England. Purposive sampling was used to over-represent populations disproportionately affected by poor sexual health: young people; people of colour; men who have sex with men; and trans and non-binary people. Semi-structured interviews were analysed using Levesque’s conceptual framework of access to healthcare.

We interviewed 100 service users. Participants typically became aware of OPSS from sexual health services, the internet or word of mouth. Acceptability of OPSS was facilitated by the perceived privacy it offered over clinic-based services, which some participants found embarrassing to access. OPSS also enabled participants to overcome barriers to reaching clinic-based services, such as a lack of appointment availability, although difficulty obtaining OPSS kits in some areas undermined this. As all services in our case study areas were free to use, affordability did not significantly shape access, although OPSS enabled some participants to avoid costs associated with travelling to clinic-based services. Participants were usually able to engage with OPSS, finding it easy to use and reliable, although blood self-sampling was challenging for most. Participants valued the support offered by clinic-based services beyond STI testing, including the opportunity to access contraception or ask staff questions, and felt this was more appropriate when they had specific concerns about their sexual health, such as STI symptoms.

Conclusions

Our findings constitute one of the largest qualitative studies to have explored OPSS and offer valuable insights to providers. OPSS shapes access to STI testing in a number of ways, including facilitating access in many circumstances, but users also want to retain access to clinic-based services, particularly for when they believe they need support beyond STI testing.

Peer Review reports

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a serious public health issue in many countries [ 1 ]. In England, diagnoses of chlamydia – the most common STI – are now stable, but syphilis and gonorrhoea diagnoses reached record levels in 2023 [ 2 ]. STIs in England are distributed inequitably across the population, with men who have sex with men (MSM), black ethnic minorities and young people aged 15–24 being disproportionately affected [ 2 ].

STI testing is crucial to enabling treatment and limiting onward infection [ 3 ]. Over the past decade, online postal self-sampling (OPSS) has emerged as an alternative to testing in sexual health clinics and other clinic-based settings. OPSS allows users to order a kit online, collect their own samples, post them to a laboratory for testing and receive results remotely [ 4 ]. Accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, when access to clinic-based services was restricted, usage of OPSS for chlamydia testing by young women aged 15–24 in England increased from 16% in 2018 to 43% in 2023 [ 2 , 5 ]. This transition has occurred in the context of a wider effort to digitise healthcare, which has included a national recommendation that sexual health services in England provide OPSS [ 6 ]. OPSS services have also been introduced, and demonstrated strong uptake, in other high-income countries [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].

Despite this increase in usage, there remains limited understanding of what leads service users to access OPSS over clinic-based services, or vice versa. Uptake of OPSS has been found to be significantly higher among some population groups – such as heterosexual women, white people, MSM and those living in less deprived areas – than others [ 4 ]. Populations with lower uptake include black ethnic minorities and teenagers, both of whom experience high incidence of STIs. If populations which have lower uptake of OPSS also face barriers to accessing clinic-based services, then this could be leading to widening of health inequalities and increasing unmet need. Poor return rates for OPSS kits are also a cause for concern, with 52% of kits ordered from some services not being returned [ 10 ]. This is socially patterned, with heterosexual men and those living in deprived areas the least likely to use kits they have received [ 11 ]. There is wider evidence of certain populations being excluded by the shift towards digital healthcare, including some people with disabilities and those with fewer socioeconomic resources [ 12 , 13 ].

Access to healthcare is viewed by Levesque et al. [ 14 ] as “the possibility to identify healthcare needs , to seek healthcare services , to reach the healthcare resources , to obtain or use health care services , and to actually be offered services appropriate to the needs for care” . As set out in Fig.  1 , they theorise that the ability of service users to progress through these stages of access is influenced by five dimensions of healthcare services: approachability; acceptability; availability; affordability; and appropriateness. Each of these dimensions corresponds with a parallel dimension of service user ability: ability to perceive; ability to seek; ability to reach; ability to pay; and ability to engage. This widely-used framework – which informed the design of our research – centres the perceptions and experiences of service users and allows facilitators and barriers to be explored, with a focus on socioeconomic determinants [ 15 ].

Conceptual framework of access to healthcare by Levesque et al. [ 14 ]

Existing research on access to STI testing within the context of OPSS is limited, with much of the literature exploring OPSS focusing exclusively on uptake [ 4 ]. Although several surveys have found high levels of acceptability of OPSS, these typically explore only the views of users who have successfully completed an OPSS pathway and are therefore affected by responder bias [ 7 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. They are also limited in how far they explore nuances in experiences. Qualitative research, which is well positioned to explore those nuances, has found that OPSS is acceptable to many people, in large part due to its perceived convenience and anonymity, but that many also have concerns around test accuracy, a lack of support when receiving results and inferior care compared to clinic-based testing [ 20 ]. Very few studies, however, have explored the experiences of users and those that have typically have small samples, or focus on a specific population or component of the OPSS pathway [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. It is therefore challenging to know the applicability of these findings to other contexts and to understand divergent views.

This study seeks to address this gap by qualitatively exploring experiences of OPSS, alongside other sexual health services, and how this influences service users’ decisions on how they access STI testing. Unlike previous research, it explores OPSS in three case study areas, with large samples in each, allowing comparison of perceptions and experiences in different contexts. It also explores users’ previous experiences of sexual health services in considerable depth, giving insight into their routes to different services, and their experiences of the entire OPSS pathway. This includes access to care in clinic-based services, when participants were directed to these following the completion of STI testing.

This research formed part of the ASSIST study, a mixed-methods, realist evaluation of the implementation and impact of OPSS [ 23 ]. One of the study’s objectives was to understand the impact of OPSS on access to care and the service user experience.

ASSIST evaluated OPSS in three case study areas, labelled CSA1, CSA2 and CSA3 for anonymity. Although distinct in many ways, all three areas are urban and were selected in part because of their highly diverse populations, in terms of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, age and LGBTQ + identity. Each has a unique delivery model for sexual health services, including OPSS, which was launched at different times in each area. CSA1 operates OPSS, alongside a number of clinics, as part of an integrated sexual health service, which in England describes services set up to address most sexual health needs, including contraception, HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and STI testing and treatment [ 6 ]. CSA2 operates OPSS as a standalone service, outsourced to a private sector partner. It is commissioned separately from, but works in partnership with, clinic-based integrated sexual health services across the city; two of these clinic-based services were selected as sites for this research, due to their high representation of populations of interest to this study. CSA3 delivers STI testing as part of a non-integrated sexual health service, with most contraceptive services in the area delivered separately and OPSS outsourced to a private sector partner. An overview of service provision in each area is provided in Table  1 . OPSS and other STI testing is available free at the point of use to residents in all three areas.

Sampling and recruitment

We aimed to recruit 30–45 participants per case study area and used a purposive sampling strategy to ensure participant demographics over-represented populations which disproportionately experience poor sexual health. Our quotas for each case study area were: 3–5 MSM; 7–10 people from ethnic minority backgrounds; 14–20 people under the age of 25; and 3–5 trans or non-binary people. We sought to include equal numbers of men and women, irrespective of whether they identified as trans. We also purposively sampled people who had used either one or both of OPSS and clinic-based services, as well as those who had received an STI diagnosis from OPSS, in order to gain insight into this aspect of the user journey. All participants were required to be 16 years or over, to speak English and to have accessed online or clinic-based sexual health services within the past 12 months, in the three case study areas.

Participants were recruited via OPSS or in sexual health clinics between December 2021 and February 2023. OPSS users saw a link on the landing page of the service website or at the end of the OPSS kit request form, which invited them to express interest in the research. Clinic users saw recruitment posters or were approached by clinic staff. Potential participants were screened according to their age; gender; ethnicity; sexual orientation; and previous use of sexual health services. Potential participants who fulfilled quota requirements were contacted by TS or DR, who explained the study and arranged a time for interview if they were interested in participating. Participants completed an online consent form ahead of the interview and consent was confirmed again verbally at the start.

Data collection

Data were collected via semi-structured interviews which explored participants’ use of the internet and online health services, their previous experiences of sexual health services (including, but not limited to, STI testing), their perceptions or experiences of the entire OPSS pathway (including ordering a kit, receiving and using it, returning it, receiving results and accessing treatment) and their perspectives on the appropriateness of different STI testing services in various contexts. The interview topic guide is provided as Supplementary Material 1. Participants had the choice of conducting their interview by phone, MS Teams or in person. They all received a £30 shopping voucher for participating. Interviews were conducted by TS, DR and AH, all of whom are professional researchers.

Data analysis

Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were reviewed for accuracy and to gain familiarity, before being pseudonymised, uploaded to NVivo software and coded using an inductive-deductive approach. This began with TS developing codes from the initial programme theory (IPT), developed by the research team as part of the wider realist evaluation, which hypothesised how service users would access and experience OPSS based on prior literature and clinician perspectives [ 23 ]. The IPT was developed from an initial logic model postulated by the research team before the study began (Supplementary Material 2), which set out to explain the introduction and impact of OPSS. It assumed that service users would perceive OPSS as: easy to find and access; convenient; easy to use and fitting in with 21st century life; providing privacy and minimising embarrassment or judgement by others; as ‘good’ a service as clinic-based services; and providing test results they could believe [ 23 ]. Additional codes were added inductively by TS from an initial sample of transcripts. Coding of the remaining transcripts was then undertaken by TS, DR and AH, who double-coded a selection of transcripts initially to check for consistency and codebook clarity. As analysis progressed, codes were continuously modified and added inductively. There were periodic meetings between TS, DR and AH to discuss new codes and their organisation into categories; meetings were also held with other members of the research team to discuss the analysis. The final code categories were organised into the dimensions of the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access, as it equipped us to understand the relationship between service users’ experiences of sexual health services and the determinants of using OPSS.

Participants

We interviewed 100 participants. All participants chose to be interviewed by phone, aside from one who interviewed in person. Full demographic information is set out in Table  2 .

Our findings are organised according to the Levesque et al. [ 14 ]. conceptual framework of access. The framework’s corresponding service and service user dimensions are presented together, giving five overarching determinants of access. For each, we have articulated a question that illustrates how we have applied the framework to OPSS.

Approachability and ability to perceive: Could service users identify clinic-based and online sexual health services and what prompted them to recognise a need to access them?

All participants were aware of clinic-based services, often viewing them as the default option for STI testing before becoming aware of OPSS. However, participants were also overwhelmingly aware of OPSS, in large part due to the efforts of services to promote it. They often discovered it while searching for STI testing services online, with OPSS often featuring prominently on search engine results, in social media adverts or on the websites of sexual health services:

“I went onto the [sexual health service] website trying to get an appointment and they told me I could order a home kit instead. So , I just went with that option […] I think that’s where the first time I saw it [was].” (Participant 17 , Black cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Staff in services raised awareness of OPSS, for example by directing participants to use it instead of attending a clinic, particularly when access to clinics was restricted during COVID-19 lockdowns:

“I called the clinic up and thought I need to make an appointment , but the lady said oh , you can register for a self test online , and it will be out this week.” (Participant 62 , White cis lesbian woman , aged 20–24) .

Participants also reported being recommended OPSS as a test of cure, following treatment for an STI:

“I went in to get tested , it did come back positive , so they said to test again to make sure it has gone before you see other sexual partners […] which you can do through an online testing kit , so that’s what I did.” (Participant 45 , White cis gay man , aged under 20) .

Alongside proactive efforts by services to increase awareness of OPSS, many participants reported learning about it via word of mouth, often from friends or new sexual partners:

“I was talking to a best friend about it really because he’d done it before and he recommended how easier it was and stuff like that.” (Participant 53 , White cis heterosexual man , aged 20–24) .

The corresponding demand-side dimension of Levesque’s et al. [ 12 ] framework addresses service users’ ability to perceive services, which is shaped by factors such as health literacy and beliefs. Participants expressed a range of reasons that motivated them to access STI testing, many of which indicated a high level of sexual health literacy. New sexual partners were a trigger for many participants to get tested, usually because they had had a condomless sexual encounter – and were concerned about having contracted an STI – or because they wanted to transition to having regular sex without condoms. Some participants had tested due to a sexual partner notifying them that they had been diagnosed with an STI. Many also attempted to test regularly if they were sexually active, regardless of the status of their relationships:

“I’ve had multiple friends in relationships that their partner has cheated on them and they’ve had chlamydia without knowing for a really long time. So , I’m a little bit of a hypochondriac where I’m like- I want kids eventually. […] So , if I get tested every three months , if I’ve had chlamydia for three months , it’s less likely to have a long term effect.” (Participant 28 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24) .

Participants were also aware that genitourinary symptoms were a reason to access testing and many had done so for this reason, either in their most recent testing experience or in an earlier one. However, they often believed that symptoms would mean it was more appropriate to get tested in sexual health clinics:

“I think if I knew I had symptoms I would go to the clinic […] but I think if I just , if I’d just had a new partner , or just had unprotected sex or whatever , I’d probably get the self-testing kit. Particularly as you can still get the blood test for the HIV in the self-testing kit as well , so I feel like unless I was experiencing at the minute , symptoms , or there was […] another thing that was going on , I probably would get the self-test kit.” (Participant 48 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

There were also participants who had less awareness of when or where to get tested, however, which was sometimes shaped by their cultural background. One participant, for example, only considered testing after her GP recommended that she do so:

“I’m not really from the UK , I live in [country] and I’ve moved here recently and STI is not really a test people do unless you have to , like it’s not very common to do STI tests so I didn’t think about it.” (Participant 33 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Acceptability and ability to seek: Did service users feel able to access clinic-based or online services within wider cultural and social norms?

OPSS appealed to many due to the privacy they felt it offered over clinic-based services, and there were specific elements of the OPSS pathway which participants focused on as underpinning the privacy of the service, such as the discreet packaging kits were delivered in:

“I thought it was very well packaged. So it comes in a brown box , it’s quite discreet. So I think if anyone was worried about , if they are living with friends or whatever their circumstances , as to oh someone is going to see that I am getting STD tested , it’s quite a discreet box.” (Participant 4 , Asian cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

Similarly, the opportunity to self-sample rather than have samples collected by a clinician appealed to many participants:

“I’m quite a squeamish kind of person and I don’t like to be prodded and poked as everybody doesn’t. So , for me I was like oh yes , that sounds really good because you do it in privacy , do it myself and just send it off.” (Participant 73 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

The option in some case study areas to collect OPSS kits, rather than having them posted, enhanced the perceived privacy of the service to some participants whose living situations meant that they felt they could not have a kit posted to their home:

“My dad’s a bit nosy at times. So a box probably comes through the letterbox he’d probably most likely open it to see what it is. And then if he does do that , that will be difficult for me explaining to him what it is.” (Participant 76 , Asian cis bisexual man , aged 35–44) .

The perceived privacy of OPSS contrasted strongly with many participants’ perceptions of sexual health clinics, which they often felt required uncomfortable waits among other service users, or awkward interactions with staff. Concerns about stigma were raised by a number of participants, even some who had had positive, non-stigmatising interactions with staff in clinics:

“I have got to say , the staff that I’ve come across at the NHS for sexual health specifically , have been absolutely wonderful. But I think with STI testing there is still societally such a stigma against it that I think when you are going for testing it’s invariable to have some of these […] anxieties.” (Participant 5 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

These concerns were also held about other clinic-based services, such as general practitioners (GPs). Although a number of participants had accessed STI testing opportunistically via their GP – and they did not feel the same concern about being seen in a GP practice, as no one in the waiting room would know their reason for being there – some still felt uncomfortable discussing sexual health with their GP:

“There are times when I’ve been to the GP for stuff like that , you almost get the talk of like what you should be doing and what you shouldn’t be doing and that sort of thing. And whereas like they don’t do that at the sexual health clinics , which I think is , is what you’d want , like […] you are there for a reason , you don’t want to be like told off at the same time.” (Participant 48 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

There were also concerns from some younger users that a GP they shared with their family may be less confidential, for example if test results were routinely sent to a parent’s mobile phone. There were participants, however, who felt a GP was the most familiar and confidential option, at least in circumstances when they felt they need to be examined by a clinician:

“I go to the doctor’s for my contraception and […] smear tests and all of those things. So for some people if the clinic is somewhere where they already go to do all those other things , they might not have so much of a problem with going to the clinic whereas I don’t. I go to my doctor’s for those things. If I had symptoms , I would go to my doctor.” (Participant 52 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 45–54) .

The communication of results was a component of STI testing which some participants felt compromised the acceptability of the service, particularly in the case study area which used SMS for this. Although participants were typically satisfied with results delivery, some had concerns that an SMS containing test results could be seen by others – a scenario which one participant had experienced:

“I was sitting at dinner with friends and my phone was face up on the table. Everyone at the table had known that I was waiting on results so it wasn’t a big deal but had I been with others who weren’t , then they would have seen the results of my sexual health screening.” (Participant 10 , Mixed ethnicity cis man , aged 20–24) .

This concern was not expressed in relation to the two OPSS services which required users to log into an online portal in order to see their results.

The corresponding service user dimension of Levesque’s et al. [ 14 ] framework focuses on the ability to seek healthcare, within the context of societal norms and rights. As all of our participants had successfully accessed STI testing, this was not a strong feature of our data and there were contrasting views between participants about the role their identities played in access. There were many who felt their identities had no impact on which services they might use:

“I’ve never felt like me being the skin colour I am or whatever is going to affect me wanting to go to a sex clinic or anything really. No , I’ve never felt that way.” (Participant 9 , Black cis heterosexual man , aged 35–44) .

There were a number of MSM, however, who felt that they were more easily able to access all STI testing services with less risk of stigmatisation due to cultural norms within their community and efforts by services to ensure they were inclusive:

“Being Indian not really , I don’t think that has impacted anything. I think the one thing about being gay is that I think you are just more aware of the importance of sexual health and regular testing. I think it’s drilled into you quite early in your sexual experience , when you come out.” (Participant 4 , Asian cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

Trans and non-binary participants also often felt that sexual health services – whether OPSS or clinics – were more inclusive than more generic services offering STI testing, such as pharmacies:

“Doing it through a pharmacy did mean that even though I was , my partner was a woman at the time , I was still being pushed contraceptives , which was not a pleasant experience […] I do think that if I was someone who was more sensitive to those issues it might have caused me distress. So, but like I have mentioned , I did really appreciate that [sexual health service] seems to be quite mindful about the gendered language that they are using.” (Participant 90 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 25–34) .

Although many appreciated that sexual health clinics were more trans-inclusive than other health services, trans and non-binary participants tended to prefer to test using OPSS, in part because it removed the risk of being misgendered or the burden of having to explain their gender identity.

Younger participants often felt they faced barriers accessing STI testing, although this led to different preferences in terms of service usage. There were some who were concerned about OPSS usage being identified, due to it arriving to their family home in the post, while others were more reluctant to use clinic-based services:

“At that age , because it’s your first time approaching the topic of contraception […] it was a bit daunting. You go on your own , because you are a little bit shy , so it’s a bit daunting , going in person.” (Participant 85 , Black cis woman , aged 25–34) .

Availability and ability to reach: How did the design , location and opening hours of sexual health services influence whether participants were able to access them?

This was another clear and strong influence for our participants. Almost all perceived OPSS as relatively convenient, particularly in terms of time saved and reduction in travel compared to attending clinic-based testing services, such as sexual health clinics:

“I am usually very , very limited for time , so […] I’ve missed maybe once or twice some appointments. So just the convenience of having a test kit come to your house , and you being able to test yourself , that’s […] very , very convenient. And then having to send it back , that’s pretty convenient.” (Participant 21 , Black cis heterosexual man , aged 25–34) .

Convenience also shaped how some participants chose to use OPSS, for example by posting their kit back for testing rather than dropping it off at a designated location:

“[Posting is] the easiest way I think. I think anything else would require me to get in the car and drive somewhere or interact with someone or , you know , to a post office and have to queue up or whatever. Whereas that’s just straight there , dropped off , straight back.” (Participant 51 , White cis heterosexual man , aged 25–34) .

The perceived convenience of OPSS stands in stark contrast to most participants’ perceptions of sexual health clinics. There was a widely-held view, often based on personal experience, that getting an appointment at a sexual health clinic was extremely challenging or time-consuming:

“I’ve not tried for a while but trying to get an appointment with [the sexual health clinic] was a little bit like trying to buy Glastonbury tickets. You have to be online at the exact right moment and you have to get lucky on top of that.” (Participant 26 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 35–44) .

Similarly, many participants spoke about the long waits which they expected or had experienced in clinics, even in circumstances where they had managed to get an appointment:

“The wait was a lot longer than I thought it was going to be […] I had to wait for like three hours which was really kind of , inconvenient. And annoying.” (Participant 49 , White non-binary , aged 20–24) .

The time and costs associated with travelling to attend clinics were another inconvenience for some participants:

“I was working and I’d have to take time out of work. I’d have to travel to the hospital. I’d have to have paid for parking. I’d have had to get there […] If I’d gone to a clinic , it would have easily took me maybe three , four hours to travel there and back , wait there.” (Participant 57 , Mixed ethnicity cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

There were participants who had experiences in clinics they felt were quick, however, for example in clinics which implemented effective processes to minimise waiting times:

“After the first visit I seen [sic] one particular nurse and then he gave me a number , it might have even been a direct number to book into upstairs and the real good thing about that was there was no waiting times at all. So , if your appointment was at four you would get seen at four , so that I really , really liked.” (Participant 11 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were also issues around the availability of OPSS in some circumstances, which presented a barrier to access. For example, one case study area saw delivery and processing times increase considerably during the COVID-19 pandemic:

“I think the first time I got it , it did take a little while to get to my house. So , I was a bit annoyed , I wish I’d got it sooner in the post than I did […] I could have been seen to quicker if I’d just made an appointment.” (Participant 17 , Black cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) . “I’ve ordered the kit online and I think it took three months for the kit to arrive and it’s been three or four weeks since I’ve done the test and I’ve still not had the results.” (Participant 78 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Another case study area introduced a cap on daily OPSS orders during our data collection, which made it challenging for some participants to access this option:

“The only issue I have is this time it said all the packs had been ordered but it came up like that for five times a day for three days on a roll , so I think they’d maxed out.” (Participant 54 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 25–34) .

Similarly, some OPSS services restricted how often users could order a kit. This was frustrating for some participants, who felt they were doing the right thing for their sexual – and for public – health but being impeded by the service provider:

“The only bad thing about it is the fact that they don’t let you have more than a certain amount. Like the quota. And it makes you feel bad about yourself. It’s like , why won’t you just let me have a test? […] Because you’re trying to be responsible and get checked out.” (Participant 58 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Affordability and ability to pay: What was the cost of accessing sexual health services and can users afford this?

As all of the services included in this research were free to access, these dimensions were not strongly present in our data. However, many participants explicitly praised the fact that STI testing was available for free to them, particularly OPSS. This view was expressed particularly strongly by a number of people who were migrants to the UK when comparing sexual health services here to their countries of origin:

“I was a bit shocked that they were free and they would pay for delivery then pay for the delivery back and also do all this stuff and it’s all like written out and it’s just a lot of effort. I was pleasantly surprised because we definitely don’t have those in [my country of origin].” (Participant 92 , White cis heterosexual man , aged under 20) .

There were also a number of participants who had used, or considered using, private OPSS services and valued that this was available to them for free:

I did click on the [high street pharmacy] one first and I did look at all the different tests and the test for everything was like £120 […] If those tests had been cheaper and they’ve been like £15 , I might have only got to that point and just gone , oh , well , for £15 I don’t have to go to a clinic. I don’t have to take time off work. I’ll just pay for that and just do it because that would feel like not that much money. (Participant 52 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–54)

As noted earlier, some participants chose to access OPSS due in part to costs associated with attending clinic-based services, such as parking.

Although it did not necessarily shape their own access, some participants expressed a perception of limited NHS resources. This led a number to accept service standards which were below their desired levels:

“Okay so I’d say that the walk-in clinics […] it’s a good and a bad. Like you’d wait for hours sometimes […] which obviously is not ideal. But at the end of the day I see it as , it’s a free service. And if there was more medical like staff to do it then yes , that would be the ideal world but we all know that we’re short staffed.” (Participant 14 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24) .

Some participants also expressed this view when discussing the wait for OPSS kits to be delivered in the case study area which experienced service disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic, although others were more critical of the delays.

There were also participants who chose OPSS over attending a clinic to preserve NHS resources for others they felt had greater need than them:

“It frees up appointments for people that need them , because I know they only do a certain amount a day, which I completely respect , because you can only do so much in one day , and there’s people that will need in-person appointments a lot more than just me.” (Participant 80 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

Appropriateness and ability to engage: Did services meet users’ health needs and did users have the capacity to do what services require of them?

Participants typically felt that OPSS was appropriate to meet their needs, with many sharing that they felt it was able to provide results quickly and accurately:

“I usually get those back within a week , week and a half , so it’s quicker to find out the results online which is [why] I use them […] I tested positive before so I know they’re obviously picking stuff up.” (Participant 55 , White cis gay man , 25–34) .

However, there was also a strong consensus among most participants that they should be seen in clinic-based in circumstances where they deemed themselves to be at higher likelihood of having an STI, such as when they were presenting with symptoms. This appealed to some participants as they felt it would enable them to be examined by a medical professional, to discuss their concerns with a clinician, receive quicker results and treatment, particularly in the case study area which experience delays in processing OPSS kits following the COVID-19 pandemic. Another appeal was the opportunity clinics offered to be tested for a wider range of STIs:

“Postal testing is very limited […] if you go somewhere like [sexual health clinic] […] they search for a range of things. So trichomoniasis you can get tested for , BV because they have the laboratory , they test for thrush if it may be thrush.” (Participant 7 , Black cis heterosexual woman , 25–34) .

There were a number of participants who valued these qualities of clinic-based testing, irrespective of whether they were concerned they had an STI, although for many the convenience of OPSS superseded these positive aspects. There were also participants who felt that clinics enabled better access to further care, such as contraception, PrEP or vaccines for conditions like hepatitis B:

“They talked about PrEP and were like , ‘Do you want to get on that? Go online and we can set up an appointment for you next week.’ So I’m actually going in next week to have my first PrEP appointment which is great. They were telling me about all the tests that they were doing and how I would get results back via text and that was great. I think the thing that surprised me the most was that I was able to get the vaccinations done right there and then.” (Participant 10 , Mixed ethnicity cis man , aged 20–24) .

Participants who had received a positive result via OPSS, however, often stated that they saw little difference in the pathway they subsequently followed. There were also some who had accessed additional care as a result of using OPSS:

“I got the testing kit […] and it was great that it actually showed that I’m not hep B immune , which actually prompted me to get my vaccination this year.” (Participant 2 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were also a small number of participants who shared that they had deliberately given false responses to order an OPSS kit, in order to avoid attending a clinic, even when they thought that it might be more appropriate for their health needs:

“If you do have symptoms which ordinarily would require you to go to a [clinic] but […] there are no slots of , you know , convenient , in terms of time , you are more likely to say ‘Right well okay then , I will answer the questions in such a way that it does enable me to get this kit.’” (Participant 9 , Mixed ethnicity cis gay man , aged 55–64) .

The corresponding demand-side dimension of the framework addresses whether users have the ability to engage with a service. Most participants found OPSS easy to use, particularly in terms of ordering kits and – thanks to clear instructions – collecting urine, vaginal, oropharyngeal and rectal samples:

“So for me [self-swabbing has] always been fine , really easy. Like no problems , like the instructions are there , it tells you what to do.” (Participant 58 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Participants were typically confident with their self-swabs and urine samples, although some said they would be more confident if they had been obtained by a clinician.

There was a widespread view, however, that blood self-sampling was prohibitively difficult and unpleasant. Lots of participants had difficulty obtaining enough blood, despite following the instructions in the kit closely. This meant some received invalid HIV and syphilis test results, leading them to attend a clinic for repeat testing:

“It was very hard to get the blood out of. So I just ended up binning it because it was a nightmare […] It was painful […] I would have needed to literally slice my finger open and have the blood dripping in it for it to fill up.” (Participant 19 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were a small number of participants who refused to use OPSS again following difficulties self-sampling blood, although others stated that it got easier with repeat usage and some had no difficulty at all. There were also a number of participants who accessed OPSS with a friend or partner, in some cases to get support with blood self-sampling:

“One person I’ve helped do them quite a lot. We would find that her blood taking is really difficult. It takes ages. Whereas , for me it was really quick , my blood just came out straightaway. But for her it takes so long.” (Participant 35 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

Other participants spoke about previously attending sexual health clinics with friends, to overcome barriers such as embarrassment and anxiety, with one saying that OPSS enabled them to get tested when a companion was not available to attend a clinic:

Interviewer: Okay. But previously , you’d always gone into the clinic. I guess , why did you choose to look for online services then? Participant: Just because- I didn’t really go into the clinic all that often because I didn’t get tested previously. But […] I have anxiety , so I don’t really like going places on my own , and that. And obviously , I couldn’t always have someone with me. (Participant 60 , Mixed ethnicity cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24)

We found that service users’ experiences of OPSS and other sexual health services shaped their future access to STI testing in a number of ways, as identified by the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access. Service users usually had a longstanding awareness of clinic-based services, while their awareness of OPSS typically came from being directed towards it by sexual health services, discovering it online or receiving an informal recommendation from a friend or partner. The acceptability of, and ability to seek, OPSS was facilitated by the perceived privacy it offers over clinic-based services, with many participants reporting that they felt embarrassed or uncomfortable when attending a sexual health clinic. However, MSM and trans participants often felt that specialist sexual health services – including OPSS – were inclusive towards them. The availability and ability to reach OPSS was predominantly influenced by its perceived convenience, as it enabled participants to avoid travel to clinics and waiting for an appointment, although difficulty obtaining OPSS kits in some areas undermined this. Affordability and ability to pay did not demonstrably shape access, as OPSS and clinic-based services were all free at the point of use, although some associated costs were a barrier to clinic-based testing, such as parking. In respect to appropriateness and ability to engage, participants generally found OPSS easy to use, aside from blood self-sampling, and were confident in its reliability, but felt that the holistic support offered by clinic-based services would be more appropriate in situations where they were particularly concerned about having an STI or another sexual or reproductive health issue.

Our findings are consistent with previous qualitative studies on OPSS, which have also identified convenience and privacy as strong facilitators to access [ 16 , 18 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. As most previous studies had explored OPSS as a hypothetical scenario and did not include the perspectives of people who had experienced using OPSS, our findings add significant weight to the evidence indicating that these qualities facilitate access in practice. However, we also found that the ways in which OPSS is delivered can affect the impact of convenience and privacy as facilitators. Services which heavily restricted the availability of OPSS, for example, or which had long processing times for kits, were more likely to have users who felt clinic-based testing was a more convenient option.

Existing research has also identified concerns among some prospective users about self-sampling, such as worries about discomfort or samples being inaccurate. However, these were partially refuted by our data, highlighting the value of exploring the views of people who have used services [ 28 , 31 ]. We found that participants overwhelmingly consider OPSS easy to use, including the vaginal, oropharyngeal and rectal swabs, and have confidence that these samples are sufficiently accurate. However, most participants struggled considerably with blood self-sampling, which offers insight to studies which have identified poor return rates for the blood component of OPSS kits [ 32 ]. Studies of prospective users have also found mixed views on the acceptability of blood self-sampling [ 27 , 28 , 30 ]. This research also identified facilitators to blood self-sampling, such as repeat usage, having access to multiple lancets and taking a sample with the support of another person. Our findings on participant satisfaction with self-swabbing and/or urine sampling highlight a limitation of our study: our sample’s relatively high health literacy. Research by Middleton et al. [ 21 ]. found that people with a mild intellectual disability saw the prospect of self-swabbing as overwhelming and challenging, something which we did not identify frequently in our data. However, to date there have been no studies exploring the experiences of people with mild intellectual disabilities who have accessed, or attempted to access, OPSS.

Our findings offer insight into how people enter and leave the OPSS pathway, a topic which has not previously been explored. As with previous research, exploring access to clinic-based sexual health services, we found that new sexual partners and symptoms were common prompts for participants to access testing [ 33 ]. However, we also found that sexual health services and social networks both played a significant role in enabling many of our participants to access OPSS, with some even doing so with friends or partners. This contrasts with some previous research which found that people often attempt to keep their use of sexual health services secret, even from friends, although some studies have also found social networks to be a route into accessing other sexual health services, such as PrEP [ 34 , 35 ].

Access to further or more comprehensive care was part of the reason many participants valued the care on offer at clinics, at least in cases of high need, and there is some existing evidence supporting this perception. Bosó Pérez et al. [ 36 ]. found that people using remote sexual health services during the COVID-19 pandemic were less satisfied during more sensitive and emotional consultations, even though many recognised its value in other circumstances. Day et al. [ 37 ]. also reported challenges in identifying OPSS users who had experienced sexual assault, and providing them with adequate support. However, another study by the same research team found that OPSS operating procedures are effective at identifying and actioning safeguarding concerns with teenage users [ 38 ]. It is noteworthy that many of our participants who had tested positive for chlamydia or gonorrhoea using OPSS did not feel their treatment and care beyond this point was compromised or differed from what they would have experienced if they had tested at a sexual health clinic.

The communication of results is a key component of any STI testing pathway and there have been inconsistent findings from previous studies about service user preferences for how results are delivered. Research exploring the views of prospective users of OPSS had identified a range of preferred media for results communication, including SMS, email and phone, although with concerns among some about confidentiality and the lack of support from a healthcare professional [ 16 , 24 , 26 , 30 ]. Studies which have explored users’ experiences of OPSS results have found high satisfaction with both online portals and SMS [ 22 , 39 ]. Our findings corroborate this, with users of both methods typically expressing satisfaction. Although some users did have privacy concerns about SMS, it was not clear that this played a significant role in access.

Strengths and limitations

This study is, to our knowledge, the largest qualitative exploration of OPSS, as well as the first to include users of different OPSS services. This allowed us to capture a wide range of perceptions and experiences, while also comparing and contrasting between different methods of delivering OPSS, in different contexts. The use of the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access enabled us to explore a wide range of facilitators and barriers to accessing both OPSS and clinic-based STI testing, including a number – such as participants’ awareness of, and ability to seek, OPSS alongside other testing options – which have received limited attention in prior research. The study sample was also highly diverse, as a result of our efforts to include populations of interest, such as young people, people of colour, MSM and trans people.

The study was limited by the fact that we found it difficult to recruit participants who had no experience of OPSS, despite this population being a key demographic in our sampling strategy. This was partially a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic and its after-effects, which were ongoing during our data collection and had restricted access to clinic-based services. Staff in clinics also had limited capacity to support recruitment of service users who may not have accessed OPSS. We also found it challenging to recruit service users with low digital literacy, and did not analyse the impact of participants’ socioeconomic status, meaning we could not draw conclusions on these as barriers to access. As previously discussed, our sample typically had reasonably high sexual health literacy, as having tested for STIs was one of our inclusion criteria, and all participants were inherently comfortable discussing sexual health, having volunteered for the research. This made it challenging to explore these factors as barriers.

Access to STI testing in the context of OPSS was shaped by a range of factors, including privacy, convenience, self-perceived risk, ability to self-sample and the opportunities users have to learn about OPSS. Commissioners and service providers seeking to improve access to STI testing should consider how the way services are delivered can reinforce facilitators to access, for example by minimising OPSS processing times and enabling kits to be collected as an alternative to home delivery, while also maintaining access to clinic-based testing for those who face barriers accessing OPSS. There would be value in further, targeted research exploring very marginalised populations whose perspectives have been insufficiently explored in the literature to date, such as those who are digitally excluded or who have never accessed OPSS, alongside populations which demonstrate persistently lower uptake of OPSS, including black ethnic groups, heterosexual men and people living in deprived areas.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available, as participants did not consent to this. Questions about the data can be directed to JG, Co-Chief Investigator, on [email protected].

Abbreviations

General practitioner

Initial programme theory

Men who have sex with men

Online postal self-sampling

Sexually transmitted infection(s)

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Acknowledgements

We thank the participants for sharing their time and experiences with us. We also thank the staff in our research sites who supported participant recruitment. We dedicate this paper to the memories of Prof Elizabeth Murray and Dr Naomi Fisher, who were co-applicants on ASSIST and made invaluable contributions to the study design.

This study is funded by the NIHR Health and Social Care Delivery Research Programme (NIHR129157). The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care.

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Fiona Burns and Jo Gibbs are joint senior authors.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London, London, UK

Tommer Spence & Jessica Sheringham

Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK

Alison Howarth, David Reid, Catherine H. Mercer, Fiona Burns & Jo Gibbs

Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

Vanessa Apea & Andy Williams

Lay representative, London, UK

David Crundwell

Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

Sara Day & Ann Sullivan

Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

Claire Dewsnap

Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Louise Jackson

STIs and HIV Division, Blood Safety, Health Security Agency, Hepatitis, London, UK

Hamish Mohammed

University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

Jonathan D. C. Ross

NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, Glasgow, UK

Andrew Winter

Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

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The study was conceived by FB and JG and designed by FB, JG, JS, LJ, GW and AH. Data were collected by TS, DR and AH. Data were analysed by TS, DR and AH, with input from JG, FB and JS. The manuscript was drafted by TS and revised by JG, FB, JS, AH and DR. VA, DC, SD, CD, LJ, CHM, HM, JDCR, AS, AW, AW and GW contributed to the interpretation of findings and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version.

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Correspondence to Tommer Spence .

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VA is a Medical Director of Preventx; FB has received speaker fees and an institutional grant from Gilead Sciences Ltd. The authors declare no other competing interests.

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Spence, T., Howarth, A., Reid, D. et al. How does online postal self-sampling (OPSS) shape access to testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)? A qualitative study of service users. BMC Public Health 24 , 2339 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19741-x

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