Factors impacting critical thinking skill development during skills fair intervention
Themes | Subthemes | Frequency of mentions |
---|---|---|
Internal factors | 33 | |
Confidence and anxiety levels | 17 | |
Attitude | 10 | |
Age | 6 | |
External factors | 62 | |
Experience and practice | 21 | |
Faculty involvement | 24 | |
Positive learning environment | 11 | |
Faculty prompts | 6 |
Skills fair intervention as a developmental strategy for critical thinking
Themes | Subthemes | Frequency |
---|---|---|
Develops alternative thinking | 13 | |
Application of knowledge and skills | 9 | |
Noticing trends to prevent complications | 4 | |
Thinking before doing | 10 | |
Considering future outcomes | 5 | |
Analyzing relevant data | 5 |
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Background: Clinical reasoning (CR) is a holistic and recursive cognitive process. It allows nursing students to accurately perceive patients’ situations and choose the best course of action among the available alternatives. This study aimed to identify the randomised controlled trials studies in the literature that concern clinical reasoning in the context of nursing students. Methods: A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and the Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL) was performed to identify relevant studies published up to October 2023. The following inclusion criteria were examined: (a) clinical reasoning, clinical judgment, and critical thinking in nursing students as a primary study aim; (b) articles published for the last eleven years; (c) research conducted between January 2012 and September 2023; (d) articles published only in English and Spanish; and (e) Randomised Clinical Trials. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool was utilised to appraise all included studies. Results: Fifteen papers were analysed. Based on the teaching strategies used in the articles, two groups have been identified: simulation methods and learning programs. The studies focus on comparing different teaching methodologies. Conclusions: This systematic review has detected different approaches to help nursing students improve their reasoning and decision-making skills. The use of mobile apps, digital simulations, and learning games has a positive impact on the clinical reasoning abilities of nursing students and their motivation. Incorporating new technologies into problem-solving-based learning and decision-making can also enhance nursing students’ reasoning skills. Nursing schools should evaluate their current methods and consider integrating or modifying new technologies and methodologies that can help enhance students’ learning and improve their clinical reasoning and cognitive skills.
Clinical reasoning (CR) is a holistic cognitive process. It allows nursing students to accurately perceive patients’ situations and choose the best course of action among the available alternatives. This process is consistent, dynamic, and flexible, and it helps nursing students gain awareness and put their learning into perspective [ 1 ]. CR is an essential competence for nurses’ professional practice. It is considered crucial that its development begin during basic training [ 2 ]. Analysing clinical data, determining priorities, developing plans, and interpreting results are primary skills in clinical reasoning during clinical nursing practise [ 3 ]. To develop these skills, nursing students must participate in caring for patients and working in teams during clinical experiences. Among clinical reasoning skills, we can identify communication skills as necessary for connecting with patients, conducting health interviews, engaging in shared decision-making, eliciting patients’ concerns and expectations, discussing clinical cases with colleagues and supervisors, and explaining one’s reasoning to others [ 4 ].
Educating students in nursing practise to ensure high-quality learning and safe clinical practise is a constant challenge [ 5 ]. Facilitating the development of reasoning is challenging for educators due to its complexity and multifaceted nature [ 6 ], but it is necessary because clinical reasoning must be embedded throughout the nursing curriculum [ 7 ]. Such being the case, the development of clinical reasoning is encouraged, aiming to promote better performance in indispensable skills, decision-making, quality, and safety when assisting patients [ 8 ].
Nursing education is targeted at recognising clinical signs and symptoms, accurately assessing the patient, appropriately intervening, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions. All these clinical processes require clinical reasoning, and it takes time to develop [ 9 ]. This is a significant goal of nursing education [ 10 ] in contemporary teaching and learning approaches [ 6 ].
Strategies to mitigate errors, promote knowledge acquisition, and develop clinical reasoning should be adopted in the training of health professionals. According to the literature, different methods and teaching strategies can be applied during nursing training, as well as traditional teaching through lectures. However, the literature explains that this type of methodology cannot enhance students’ clinical reasoning alone. Therefore, nursing educators are tasked with looking for other methodologies that improve students’ clinical reasoning [ 11 ], such as clinical simulation. Clinical simulation offers a secure and controlled setting to encounter and contemplate clinical scenarios, establish relationships, gather information, and exercise autonomy in decision-making and problem-solving [ 12 ]. Different teaching strategies have been developed in clinical simulation, like games or case studies. Research indicates a positive correlation between the use of simulation to improve learning outcomes and how it positively influences the development of students’ clinical reasoning skills [ 13 ].
The students of the 21st century utilise information and communication technologies. With their technological skills, organisations can enhance their productivity and achieve their goals more efficiently. Serious games are simulations that use technology to provide nursing students with a safe and realistic environment to practise clinical reasoning and decision-making skills [ 14 ] and can foster the development of clinical reasoning through an engaging and motivating experience [ 15 ].
New graduate nurses must possess the reasoning skills required to handle complex patient situations. Aware that there are different teaching methodologies, with this systematic review we intend to discover which RCTs published focus on CR in nursing students, which interventions have been developed, and their effectiveness, both at the level of knowledge and in increasing clinical reasoning skills. By identifying the different techniques used during the interventions with nursing students in recent years and their effectiveness, it will help universities decide which type of methodology to implement to improve the reasoning skills of nursing students and, therefore, obtain better healthcare results.
This study aims to identify and analyse randomised controlled trials concerning clinical reasoning in nursing students. The following questions guide this literature review:
Which randomised controlled trials have been conducted in the last eleven years regarding nursing students’ clinical reasoning? What are the purposes of the identified RCTs? Which teaching methodologies or strategies were used in the RCTs studies? What were the outcomes of the teaching strategies used in the RCTs?
This review follows the PRISMA 2020 model statement for systematic reviews. That comprises three documents: the 27-item checklist, the PRISMA 2020 abstract checklist, and the revised flow diagram [ 16 ].
A systematic literature review was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and the Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL) up to 15th October 2023.
The PICOS methodology guided the bibliographic search [ 17 ]: “P” being the population (nursing students), “I” the intervention (clinical reasoning), “C” comparison (traditional teaching), “O” outcome (dimension, context, and attributes of clinical reasoning in the students’ competences and the results of the teaching method on nursing students), and “S” study type (RCTs).
The search strategy used in each database was the following: (“nursing students” OR “nursing students” OR “pupil nurses” OR “undergraduate nursing”) AND (“clinical reasoning” OR “critical thinking” OR “clinical judgment”). The filters applied were full text, randomised controlled trial, English, Spanish, and from 1 January 2012 to 15 October 2023. The search strategy was performed using the same process for each database. APP performed the search, and AZ supervised the process.
During the search, the terms clinical reasoning, critical thinking, and clinical judgement were used interchangeably since clinical judgement is part of clinical reasoning and is defined by the decision to act. It is influenced by an individual’s previous experiences and clinical reasoning skills [ 18 ]. Critical thinking and clinical judgement involve reflective and logical thinking skills and play a vital role in the decision-making and problem-solving processes [ 19 ].
The first search was conducted between March and September 2022, and an additional search was conducted during October 2023, adding the new articles published between September 2022 and September 2023, following the same strategy. The search strategy was developed using words from article titles, abstracts, and index terms. Parallel to this process, the PRISMA protocol was used to systematise the collection of all the information presented in each selected article. This systematic review protocol was registered in the international register PROSPERO: CRD42022372240.
The following inclusion criteria were examined: (a) clinical reasoning, clinical judgment, and critical thinking in nursing students as a primary aim; (b) articles published in the last eleven years; (c) research conducted between January 2012 and September 2023; (d) articles published only in English and Spanish; and (e) RCTs. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria were studies conducted with students from other disciplines other than nursing, not random studies or review articles.
After this study selection, the following information was extracted from each article: bibliographic information, study aims, teaching methodology, sample size and characteristics, time of intervention, and conclusions.
The two reviewers, APP and AZ, worked independently to minimise bias and mistakes. The titles and abstracts of all papers were screened for inclusion. All potential articles underwent a two-stage screening process based on the inclusion criteria. All citations were screened based on title, abstract, and text. Reviewers discussed the results to resolve minor discrepancies. All uncertain citations were included for full-text review. The full text of each included citation was obtained. Each study was read thoroughly and assessed for inclusion following the inclusion and exclusion criteria explained in the methodology. The CASP tool was utilised to appraise all included studies. The CASP Randomized Controlled Trial Standard Checklist is an 11-question checklist [ 20 ], and the components assessed included the appropriateness of the objective and aims, methodology, study design, sampling method, data collection, reflexivity of the researchers, ethical considerations, data analysis, rigour of findings, and significance of this research. These items of the studies were then rated (“Yes” = with three points; “Cannot tell” = with two points; “No” = with one point). The possible rates for every article were between 0 and 39 points.
Since this study was a comprehensive, systematic review of the existing published literature, there was no need for us to seek ethical approval.
The initial search identified 158 articles using the above-mentioned strategy (SCOPUS ® n = 72, PUBMED ® n = 56, CENTRAL ® n = 23, and EMBASE ® n= 7), and the results are presented in Figure 1 . After retrieving the articles and excluding 111, 47 were selected for a full reading. Finally, 17 articles were selected. To comply with the methodology, the independent reviewers analysed all the selected articles one more time after the additional search, and they agreed to eliminate two of them because this study sample included nursing students as well as professional nurses. Therefore, to have a clear outcome focused on nursing students, two articles were removed, and the very final sample size was fifteen articles, following the established selection criteria ( Figure 1 ). The reasons for excluding studies from the systematic review were: nurses as targets; other design types of studies different from RCTs; focusing on other health professionals such as medical students; review studies; and being published in full text in other languages other than Spanish or English.
Flowchart of screening of clinical reasoning RCTs that underwent review.
All studies included in the review were screened with the CASP tool. Each study was scored out of a maximum of 39 points, showing the high quality of the randomised control trial methodology. The studies included had an average score of 33.1, ranging from 30 to 36 points. In addition, this quantitative rate of the items based on CASP, there were 13 studies that missed an item in relation to assessing/analysing outcome/s ‘blinded or not’ or not, and 11 studies that missed the item whether the benefits of the experimental intervention outweigh the harms and costs.
Once the articles had undergone a full reading and the inclusion criteria were applied, data extraction was performed with a data extraction table ( Appendix A ). Their contents were summarised into six different cells: (1) CASP total points result, (2) purpose of this study, (3) teaching strategy, (4) time of intervention, (5) sample size, and (6) author and year of publication. After the review by the article’s readers, fifteen RCTs were selected. Of the fifteen, the continent with the highest number of studies was Asia, with 53.33% of the studies (n = 8) (Korea n = 4, Taiwan n = 2, and China n = 2), followed by Europe with 26.66% (n = 4) (Turkey n = 2, Paris n = 1, and Norway n = 1), and lastly South America with 20% (n = 3), all of them from Brazil.
Different teaching strategies have been identified in the reviewed studies: simulation methods (seven articles) and learning programmes (eight articles). There are also two studies that focus on comparing different teaching methodologies.
The simulation methods focused on in the studies were virtual simulation (based on mobile applications), simulation games, and high-fidelity clinical simulation. Of the total number of nursing students in the studies referring to clinical simulations, 43.85% were in their second year, while 57.1% were senior-year students. The most used method in the clinical simulation group was virtual simulation, and 57.14% of studies included only one-day teaching interventions.
Virtual simulations were used to increase knowledge about medication administration and nasotracheal suctioning in different scenarios [ 21 ], to evaluate the effect of interactive nursing skills, knowledge, and self-efficacy [ 11 ], and to detect patient deterioration in two different cases [ 22 ]. Simulation game methodology was used to improve nursing students’ cognitive and attention skills, strengthen judgment, time management, and decision-making [ 14 ].
Clinical simulation was used to develop nursing students’ clinical reasoning in evaluating wounds and their treatments [ 12 ], to evaluate and compare the perception of stressors, with the goal of determining whether simulations promote students’ self-evaluation and critical-thinking skills [ 23 ], and also to evaluate the impact of multiple simulations on students’ self-reported clinical decision-making skills and self-confidence [ 24 ].
Different types of learning programmes have been identified in this systematic review: team-based learning, reflective training programs, person-centred educational programmes, ethical reasoning programmes, case-based learning, mapping, training problem-solving skills, and self-instructional guides. Of the total number of nursing students in the studies referring to learning programs, 57.1% were junior-year students, while 43.85% were in their senior year.
Team-based learning is a learner-centred educational strategy that promotes active learning to improve students’ problem-solving, knowledge, and practise performance. It can be implemented in small or large groups divided into teams with an instructor and reading material based on case scenarios [ 25 ]. Reflective training is based on a new mentoring practise to explore, think about, and solve problems actively during an internship. During the reflective training program, the mentors lead students to uncover clinical nursing problems through conversations with them and discussing feedback for their professional portfolios [ 26 ]. The person-centred educational programme focuses on how nursing students perceive individualised care, using design thinking to improve their perception. The use of design thinking gave the students opportunities to apply their theoretical knowledge of the person-centred program to plan innovative solutions that may effectively resolve real-life situations [ 27 ]. Another educational programme identified is the ethical reasoning program, and the aim of this is to improve nursing students’ handling of ethical decision-making situations [ 28 ], engaging the students in complex ethical clinical situations based on real cases.
Case-based learning was used to explore and demonstrate the feasibility of implementing unfolding cases in lectures to develop students’ critical-thinking abilities [ 29 ]. The web-based concept mapping of nursing students was also investigated to determine its impact on critical-thinking skills [ 30 ]. Training problem-solving skills were used to find out how it affected the rate of self-handicapping among nursing students [ 31 ]. And the last article evaluated the effect of the self-instructional guide to improve clinical reasoning skills on diagnostic accuracy in undergraduate nursing students [ 32 ].
Although 158 studies were initially identified, only 15 articles were finally included in this review. The excluded articles were mainly from other disciplines other than nursing and used a less rigorous study design than RCT.
The three longest interventions were developed in Asia [ 26 , 28 , 29 ]. The longest was 300 h in duration, through one year [ 30 ]. These interventions were based on learning programs, case-based learning, person-centred care (PCC), and reflective training programs. However, it is important to take into account that Asian nursing curriculum programmes are different from European or United States curriculum because their internship is carried out only during the last academic degree year, while in Europe, following the European directive 2005/36/CE, 2013/55/UE nursing education requirements of 4600 h (2300 h of clinical practice) is carried out along the 3–4 years of the academic degree [ 33 ]. On the other hand, the intervention with the biggest sample was 419 nursing students [ 30 ], 210 in the experimental group, and 209 in the control group, and the one with the lowest sample was 51, with 24 students in the control group and 27 in the intervention group [ 32 ]. Therefore, all the included studies had a good sample size.
This systematic review has detected different methodologies to help nursing students improve their reasoning and decision-making skills. Virtual simulation was the most frequently used teaching method, both as a mobile application and as a serious game. In terms of its effectiveness in a study carried out in Taiwan, the use of a mobile application resulted in significantly higher knowledge scores, better skill performance, and higher satisfaction in students than traditional paper materials [ 21 ]. Virtual simulation [ 11 , 14 , 21 ] has also proven to be an effective tool for enhancing knowledge and confidence in recognising and responding to rapidly deteriorating patients, but studies that combined two educational strategies were more effective [ 29 ], like clinical simulation combined with another teaching strategy such as lectures or videos [ 12 ].
An interactive learner-centred nursing education mobile application with systematic contents effectively allowed students to experience positive practical nursing skills [ 11 ]. However, in a study comparing serious game simulation versus traditional teaching methods, no significant difference was found immediately or in the month following the training [ 22 ], but serious games can improve nursing students’ cognitive skills to detect patient deterioration and to make safe decisions about patient care [ 14 ]. Although the innovative teaching method was well received by the students, who expressed higher levels of satisfaction and motivation [ 22 ]. We can affirm that the development of a mobile application and its application can be effectively used by nursing students at all levels [ 11 ]. However, the performance of all these studies was measured on its short-term outcomes, only 40 min [ 21 ], 2 h [ 22 ], and 1 week [ 11 , 14 ] of intervention, and was performed with a mean sample size of 97 nursing students.
The data obtained in a study developed in Brazil [ 12 ] confirm that clinical simulation is effective for the development of nursing students’ clinical reasoning in wound evaluation and treatment and that clinical simulation in conjunction with other educational methods promotes the acquisition of knowledge by facilitating the transition from what the student knows to rational action. Moreover, the high-fidelity simulation strategy increases the perception of stressors related to a lack of competence and interpersonal relationships with patients, multidisciplinary teams, and colleagues compared with the conventional practice class in the skill laboratory. This increase was related to the students’ capacity for self-evaluation and critical reflection, concerning their learning responsibility and the need to acquire the required skills for patient care [ 23 ]. However, in the case of the effect of multiple simulations on students, there are no differences found between the double-versus single-scenario simulations [ 24 ]. The intervention time in these three studies was 30 min [ 23 ], 3.5 h [ 12 ], and 4 days [ 24 ]; then the time used to implement the intervention can determine the results obtained.
The different learning methods have an impact on various learning outcomes and students’ variables. Team-based learning [ 25 ], reflective training [ 26 ], the person-centred education programme [ 27 ], web-based concept mapping [ 30 ], and teaching cognitive-behavioural approaches [ 31 ] have proven to be effective in enhancing problem-solving abilities, knowledge, and reasoning processes and consequently improving the quality of nursing practical education. Team-based learning increased problem-solving ability scores significantly, while those in the control group decreased [ 25 ]. Reflective training, developed in China based on the new mentoring approach, was effective in encouraging nursing students to explore, think about, and solve problems actively during an internship, consequently improving their disposition for critical thinking [ 26 ]. A person-centred education programme using design thinking can effectively improve how nursing students perceive individualised care. Using design thinking allowed the students to apply their theoretical knowledge of the programme to plan innovative solutions that may effectively resolve real health problems [ 27 ]. These programmes were developed in 5 or 6 days [ 27 , 31 ], 1 week or 3 weeks [ 25 , 30 ], and 1 year [ 26 ].
The education programme focused on improving ethical decision-making had statistically significant improvements in nursing students’ self-efficacy in communication confidence, complex ethical decision-making skills, and decreased communication difficulty [ 28 ]. Case-based learning was more effective with lectures than without them in developing students’ critical thinking abilities [ 29 ]. This study was one of the longest developed with 300 h during one school year. This long-term learning intervention could have a positive impact on this study sample. Therefore, the time of the learning intervention could be a limitation in the studied RCTs. The one-time self-instruction guide was ineffective in impacting students’ diagnostic accuracy in solving case studies [ 32 ], and it is possible that only one day of intervention is not enough.
Studies have shown that problem- and team-based learning [ 25 , 31 ] are more beneficial than traditional teaching [ 29 ], as they enhance nursing skills and improve problem-solving abilities, clinical performance, communication competencies, critical thinking, and self-leadership.
Researchers generally agree that clinical reasoning is an important ability and one of the most important competencies for good nursing practise to ensure optimal patient outcomes [ 29 ] and to recognise and address patient deterioration effectively. However, effective communication is crucial in clinical reasoning. It is required to establish a rapport with patients, conduct health evaluations, make collaborative decisions, and discuss clinical cases with colleagues and supervisors. Developing clinical reasoning skills during training is essential to improving nursing professionals’ practice. To enhance clinical reasoning abilities, nursing schools should integrate simulations at every level of education to ultimately improve patient care. Improving nursing students’ preparation will impact the quality of patient care. In addition, new innovative teaching methodologies based on the use of technology could be a motivational driver in nursing clinical reasoning [ 22 ].
This systematic review did not perform a search on CINAHL. Although most of the journals included in this database are included in MEDLINE, this should be addressed in the future because of the relevance of the database to nursing research. The results of the included studies could have also been influenced by the different times of the interventions and the different contexts. In addition, the reviewers have identified other studies published in languages other than those required by the inclusion criteria. It seems that many articles are published by Asian researchers, but some of them are not in English, so they cannot be analysed.
As society progresses, the new generation of nursing students poses a challenge; new technologies are ingrained in their daily lives with access to increasingly advanced technologies like artificial intelligence, and we must adapt training to capture their interest and increase their learning skills. The utilisation of mobile apps, digital simulations, and learning games has a positive impact on the clinical reasoning abilities of nursing students and their motivation. Incorporating new technologies into problem-solving-based learning and decision-making can also enhance nursing students’ reasoning skills. As a result, it is crucial to incorporate these tools into the learning process to maintain students’ interest, motivation, and satisfaction in education. Clinical simulation is particularly important in the training of students in terms of clinical performance. Still, it is necessary to add another teaching method to increase the efficacy of clinical simulations. Therefore, nursing schools should evaluate their current teaching methods and consider integrating or modifying new technologies and methodologies that can help enhance students’ learning, improve their clinical reasoning and cognitive skills, and potentially improve nursing students’ ability to affect patient care positively. By doing so, students will be better equipped to provide high-quality patient care in the future.
Study | Sample Size | Time Intervention | Teaching Strategies | Purpose of the RCTs | CASP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maurício et al., 2022 [ ] | n = 51 | 1 day | Self-Instructional Guide | To evaluate the effect of the Self-Instructional Guide for Clinical Reasoning on the diagnostic accuracy of undergraduate nursing students. | 36 |
Calik and Kapucu 2022 [ ] | n = 60 | 1 week | Simulation game | Evaluated the efficacy of serious games using pre- and post-tests. | 36 |
Zhang et al., 2017 [ ] | n = 157 | 12 months | Reflective training program | To evaluate the effects of reflective training for nursing students on their critical thinking disposition. | 35 |
Chang et al., 2021 [ ] | n = 110 | 40 min | Mobile application | To test the hypothesis that nursing students who used a mobile learning app would have significantly higher levels of knowledge about nasotracheal suctioning and medication administration and a better development of skill performance in medication administration. | 35 |
(Virtual simulation) | |||||
Blanié et al., 2020 [ ] | n= 146 | 2 h | Gaming and traditional methods | To compare a traditional teaching method with gaming to improve the clinical reasoning skills necessary to help nursing students detect patient deterioration. | 35 |
Bilik et al., 2020 [ ] | n = 419 | 1 week | Web-based concept mapping education | To investigate the impact of web-based concept mapping education on nursing students’ critical-thinking and concept-mapping skills. | 34 |
Zarshenas et al., 2019 [ ] | n = 90 | 2 h for 6 days | Problem-solving | To investigate how training problem-solving skills affected the rate of self-handicapping among nursing students. | 33 |
Svellingen et al., 2021 [ ] | n = 146 | 4 days in 3 years | Clinical simulation | To evaluate the impact of multiple simulations on students’ self-reported clinical decision-making skills and self-confidence. | 33 |
Kim and Suh 2018 [ ] | n = 72 | 1 week | Mobile application | To determine if a mobile application improved students’ skills and knowledge. | 33 |
(virtual simulation) | |||||
Park et al., 2021 [ ] | n = 105 | 2 h for 5 days | Education program | To develop a feasibility programme for providing foundational knowledge and skills about patient-centred care to fourth-year undergraduate nursing students using the design-thinking approach. | 32 |
Pai et al., 2022 [ ] | n = 101 | 8 h for 14 weeks | Person-centred education program | To investigate the impact of an ethical decision-making framework on ethical decision-making and communication self-efficacy in nursing students. | 32 |
Silva et al., 2020 [ ] | n = 78 | 3.5 h for one day | Clinical simulation | To analyse the effect of clinical simulation on the development of clinical reasoning and on nursing students’ acquisition of knowledge of wound evaluation and treatment. | 31 |
Boostel et al., 2018 [ ] | n = 52 | 30 min | Clinical simulation | To compare and evaluate the perception of stressors by nursing students before and after a high-fidelity conventional laboratory practise class or clinical simulation. | 30 |
Hong and Yu, 2017 [ ] | n = 122 | 300 h | Cased-based learning | To compare and explore the effectiveness of two styles of case-based learning methods, unfolding nursing cases and unusual nursing cases, implemented in lectures for developing nursing students’ critical-thinking abilities. | 30 |
Kim et al., 2016 [ ] | n = 63 | 2 h weekly for 3 weeks | Team-based learning | To examine the effects of TBL on learning outcomes and the problem-solving ability (knowledge and clinical performance) of Korean nursing students. | 30 |
This research received external funding from the European programme Eramus +2021-1-BE02-KA220-HED-000023194.
Conceptualisation, A.P.-P. and A.Z.; methodology, A.P.-P. and A.Z.; formal analysis, A.P.-P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P.-P.; writing—review and editing, A.Z.; visualisation, A.Z.; supervision, A.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Socratic questioning isn’t merely a philosopher’s technique but a formidable asset for enhancing one’s critical thinking and articulation abilities. Want to improve your communication skills? Then this powerful tool is perfect for you too!
In this article, you’ll learn why this age-old technique still matters today and how it can transform conversations in your daily life. From understanding its roots to applying it in education and beyond, we’ll guide you through mastering Socratic questioning. Plus, we’ll tackle common challenges and even compare the Socratic method with other ones used for teaching. Ready to boost your analytical abilities? Let’s get started.
Socratic questioning isn’t just a debate technique from ancient Greece. It’s like the Swiss Army knife of conversation tools, ready to dissect ideas and shine light on the truth.
This practice roots back to Socrates himself, who famously used it to challenge assumptions and foster critical thinking among his peers. But don’t let its age fool you—these questions are as useful today as they were over two millennia ago. Through the art of inquisitive interrogation, we strip down preconceived notions and unveil profound understandings about our convictions and choices.
The beauty of Socratic questioning lies in its versatility. It thrives anywhere curiosity lives, and isn’t confined to philosophy classes or legal chambers. If navigating personal quandaries or dissecting intricate work-related puzzles, embracing this method can turn ordinary chats into thoughtful dialogues.
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Socrates, the renowned philosopher from ancient Athens, knew a thing or two about sparking insight. His method? Asking the right kinds of questions. Let’s break down these types of questions and look at them more closely.
First up are clarification questions. Imagine you’re trying to get to the bottom of why your friend always chooses odd vacation spots. You might ask, “What draws you to these places?” This type of open-ended question nudges someone to think more deeply about their initial statement or choice.
In practice, it’s like peeling an onion, because each layer reveals more until you hit the core truth. In this way, clarification question stay true to their name, offering a way to gain insight and better understanding.
Next in line is probing assumptions, and using these is a bit like playing devil’s advocate. For instance, if someone says “All great speakers are born with talent,” you could counter with “Why do we assume talent can’t be developed?” These questions challenge underlying beliefs and open doors for fresh perspectives.
By adopting this method, we unearth concealed prejudices and prompt a reevaluation of our core convictions, paving the way for enlightenment and development.
Lastly we have examining evidence, and this is where critical thinking kicks into high gear. If your colleague claims “Our marketing strategy isn’t working,” dig deeper by asking “What data supports this conclusion?” This question not only scrutinizes the basis of assertions but promotes a fact-based discussion rather than one led by emotions or vague observations. In other words, this approach changes our dialogues from speculative arguments to discussions anchored in the tangible world.
By weaving Socratic inquiry into our daily dialogues, we cultivate spaces where authentic revelations and meaningful conversations flourish. The key lies in being curious enough to go deeper than surface-level exchanges and brave enough to question our own as well as others’ viewpoints rigorously.
So now you’ve been introduced to Socratic questioning and its brain-boosting powers. But how do you use it without sounding like a philosopher at dinner? Believer it or not, it’s simpler than you think.
Mixing Socratic questioning into your daily conversations doesn’t mean turning every coffee run into a debate club meeting. Instead, start with simple introspection, asking yourself why you believe what you do about common topics, whether it’s politics, education, or even the best burger joint in town.
To navigate conversations effectively, aim to ignite a spark of curiosity rather than sparking heated debates. Ask open-ended questions that invite people to explain their views more deeply. While there’s nothing wrong with the occasional yes-or-no inquiry, avoid using them exclusively as they typically shut down discussion.
Mastering this method doesn’t just mean you shine in debate victories. It’s equally adept at helping you navigate significant and minor choices alike. Applying this level of scrutiny can lead to better choices by ensuring all angles are considered before jumping in headfirst.
As mentioned earlier, apply these methods inwardly too. When facing personal dilemmas or life choices, being able to dissect your own reasoning can clarify what you truly want. It can also help you identify what might simply be an impulsive desire. Employed thoughtfully, they foster self-reflection leading to more informed choices aligned with one’s values.
By practicing Socratic questioning regularly, you’ll develop a knack for critical thinking that rivals ancient philosophers.
Imagine walking into a classroom where the air buzzes with curiosity, and every question leads to another. Because of its exploratory nature, Socratic inquiry is perfect for transforming every classroom into a hive of exploration.
Using the three different types of Socratic questions, students can gain deeper understanding and insight into a variety of topics. For instance, suppose students in a history class used evidence-based questions to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a democratic government. Similarly, an English class could use clarification questions to dive deeper into a text and characters’ motivations. Science teachers could even use assumption questions to introduce scientific phenomena like centrifugal force or buoyancy.
The rationale behind someone’s arguments becomes clearer through Socratic questioning. By following a line of inquiry, students can dissect how certain conclusions were reached. As a result, students gain a greater understanding of other perspectives, putting them in an ideal position to experience empathy and broaden their own viewpoints.
Despite its many benefits, Socratic questioning can prove challenging in the classroom. Some find it leads to confusion or frustration due to its open-ended nature or when improperly applied without consideration for individual learning styles or emotional readiness.
Navigating these challenges effectively requires patience along with an understanding of what students are prepared to handle. And of course, a little practice goes a long way.
Socratic questioning, though effective in fostering deep thought, comes with its own set of obstacles. Diving into this approach, we often bump into a few stumbling blocks and critiques that are worth mentioning.
At times, diving headfirst into the pursuit of profound insights can end up making individuals feel even more bewildered than they were to begin with. Imagine you’re trying to find your way out of a maze, but every turn you take leads to another question instead of an exit. That’s how some folks feel during intense sessions of Socratic questioning. It requires patience and resilience from all parties involved.
In addition, Socratic questioning demands a high level of engagement which might be draining over long periods. The key here is balance, knowing when to dive deeper and when to surface back with the answers found.
In scenarios where one person holds all the questions (and thereby controls the direction of conversation), there can be an unintended power imbalance. This dynamic might make some participants hesitant to share their thoughts openly or challenge ideas being presented.
To mitigate this issue, facilitators need careful training on creating an inclusive environment where everyone feels empowered to contribute equally.
Questions are open-ended by nature. This means there’s room for interpretation in responses received as well as in subsequent questions asked. Misunderstandings can occur if either party reads too much between lines or assumes knowledge not actually possessed by others.
Clear communication is crucial here, and asking follow-up questions helps ensure everyone remains on the same page throughout discussions.
Socratic questioning demonstrates the power of asking questions that encourage deep thought and learning. In contrast to conventional educational tactics, which frequently emphasize memorization, this strategy nurtures analytical reasoning by prompting learners to explore and conclude independently.
In traditional lectures, information flows one way: from teacher to student. As a result, students might find themselves drifting off or lost in a flurry of note-taking, barely connecting with the essence of what’s being taught. When you bring Socratic questioning into play, however, the classroom becomes a dialogue rather than a monologue. Students become active participants in their education, not just passive receivers of information.
In addition to increased attention, students can also gain a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts. For instance, instead of simply memorizing historical facts, students might explore why certain events unfolded as they did and how they could have been different under other circumstances.
Group projects aim to foster collaboration but sometimes fall short when some voices dominate while others fade into the background. Integrating Socratic questioning encourages every group member to voice their thoughts and question each other’s assumptions critically—a key skill in both academic settings and real-world problem-solving scenarios.
By dissecting intricate concepts, this technique ensures all participants can grasp and add value to the conversation, thereby enhancing inclusivity and efficacy in learning among varied groups.
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If you’re eager to dive deeper into the world of Socratic questioning, a wealth of resources awaits. From books that lay the foundational principles to interactive websites offering practical exercises, there’s something for every level of curiosity and expertise.
If reading is your thing, there are plenty of books that delve deeper into Socratic questioning. Take, for instance, “The Art of Socratic Questioning,” which delves into the nuances of this timeless technique, offering readers insights into crafting questions that stimulate deep thinking.
Meanwhile, “Socrates’ Café: A Fresh Taste of Philosophy” brings philosophy out of the academy and into everyday life, demonstrating how Socratic questioning remains as relevant today as it was in ancient Greece. (And speaking of ancient Greece, have you ever heard of the three rhetorical appeals? Check them out here .)
Lastly, “Socrates in the Boardroom” delves into the application of these philosophical approaches within leadership spheres, urging individuals to scrutinize their decision-making methods critically.
The digital age brings with it innovative ways to engage with classical education methods. Websites like The Critical Thinking Community offer extensive guides on implementing Socratic techniques in educational settings or personal growth endeavors. For those looking for a more hands-on approach, Socrative , allows users to create real-time quizzes inspired by the probing nature of Socratic inquiry. This tool is perfect for educators aiming to invigorate their classrooms or for individuals keen on testing their critical thinking skills.
What is an example of socratic question.
An example of a Socratic question would be, “What evidence supports your thinking?” This question encourages a deep dive into reasoning, pushing for clarity and proof.
It is a form of inquiry that challenges beliefs through systematic questioning, aiming to uncover assumptions and improve understanding.
The four stages include clarifying concepts, examining assumptions, seeking evidence or reasons, and exploring implications or consequences.
In CBT, it might involve asking “How does this thought affect your actions?” to link thoughts with behavior patterns.
So now you have a better handle on Socratic questioning. It’s not just ancient philosophy; it’s a tool for the critical thinkers of today. Not only does it sharpen your thinking, it ups your conversation game. By challenging us to think deeper, Socratic questioning boosts analytical skills, making every moment of curiosity matter.
While there are some hurdles to the method, there are plenty of ways to overcome those obstacles. And in comparison to other techniques, it has plenty of advantages and benefits.
Beyond sharpening minds in dialogue or education lies the power of asking better questions—and that’s where real growth happens.
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Critical thinking skills are in demand across various roles and industries. Interviewers often ask questions to assess your problem-solving abilities and logical thinking. To impress potential employers, use examples that highlight your analytical decision-making process. In this article, we present Critical-thinking Interview Questions you might encounter.
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Employers seek individuals who can tackle complex challenges, identify problems with finesse, and chart intelligent courses of action. This prized skill set transcends industry boundaries, making it a universal currency in the job market. Understanding Critical Thinking Interview Questions and sample answers will help you unlock the doors to your future career.
Explore the top 15+ Critical Thinking Interview Questions and discover sample answers to ace your job interviews. Read more to improve your decision-making skills.
Table of Contents
1) Commonly asked Critical Thinking Interview Questions
a) Describe an instance where you persuaded your supervisor or team to consider an alternative approach in addressing a challenge.
b) How would you handle a situation where you noticed your supervisor made an error in a report or presentation?
c) Describe one of the most difficult decisions you have had to make at work.
d) How would you handle a situation where a colleague presented you with a new or unusual idea?
e) How would you solve a disagreement among team members on how to approach a project?
f) Have you ever anticipated potential problems and developed steps to avoid them?
g) How do you handle making a decision when you don't have all of the information?
h) When solving a problem or completing a task, how do you determine when you need help from others?
i) In a live presentation to key stakeholders, you notice a mistake in your manager's report, but your manager isn't present. How do you handle this?
j) Share an instance when you persuaded your manager to consider an alternative approach in addressing a challenge.
2) Conclusion
Discussed below are some of the commonly asked Critical Thinking Interview Questions.
“In my previous position, I frequently needed to access data from our company's database and compile it into a spreadsheet. Typically, this was done manually. However, I introduced a more efficient method by proposing the use of a specific software program and demonstrating the automated process. I outlined how this automated approach would not only save us time but also free up resources for more critical tasks.”
"If I were to spot an error in my supervisor's work, I would choose to address it privately at a suitable time. During this discussion, I would point out the mistake and extend my assistance in rectifying it. I feel that maintaining the privacy of this conversation is a way to demonstrate my respect for my supervisor and their position."
Interviewers pose this question to assess your ability to make decisions in tough scenarios. Your response should demonstrate how you approached a challenging choice, showcasing your problem-solving skills and how you evaluated various options to arrive at the best solution.
"I once worked with a colleague on a project, and they proposed a radically different approach from my usual method. I inquired about their approach, asking them to guide me through it and share their past success with it. The steps they recommended appeared simpler than my usual process, so we opted to adopt their method."
Enhancing your critical thinking skills involves assessing conflicting perspectives and leveraging them to craft effective solutions. Analysing diverse angles of a situation can expand your viewpoint and frequently result in improved solutions. Demonstrating your capability to make decisions that benefit your team is a valuable skill to exhibit to interviewers.
“During my previous employment, I had the duty of arranging work shifts for the staff, and I recogni s ed that managing schedules became more intricate during the holiday season. To address this challenge, I introduced a system for requesting time off during this period, allowing me to plan schedules well in advance. Additionally, I implemented a training program to equip the staff with the skills needed to cover various roles, ensuring flexibility.”
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“I prefer having a wealth of inf ormation at my disposal when making decisions, although I acknowledge that this isn't always feasible . In such cases, I make an effort to gather as much relevant information as possible and use contextual clues to fill in any gaps.
Once, when I needed guidance on a client proposal and my supervisor was unavailable, I thoroughly examined the client's creative brief for insights. The brief offered sufficient information for me to discover a potential solution to my dilemma. When I presented my findings, I felt confident in my preparation and received only minor adjustments from the client.”
“In the past, I've come to understand that certain situations call for assistance from others. I make this decision when I acknowledge that a task is too large for me to manage alone or when I require additional perspectives to address a particular issue effectively.
For instance, last year, I accepted the responsibility of creating a report for an internal client with a tight deadline. While working on the report, I reali s ed that I wouldn't be able to complete it within the given timeframe , so I reached out to a colleague .”
“In such a situation, I would make a mental note of the mistake but not point it out immediately during the live presentation to avoid any embarrassment or disruption. Instead, I would bring it to my manager's attention after the presentation, explaining the issue and seeking guidance on the best way to rectify it.”
“Once, our team faced a recurring issue with a project's timeline. I proposed a more agile approach, emphasi s ing flexibility. I presented data on its success elsewhere and highlighted the potential benefits. After a discussion, my manager agreed to give it a try , leading to improved project outcomes and a more adaptive work environment.”
“In such a situation, I would first suggest holding a structured team meeting to discuss the differing opinions and perspectives. During this discussion, I'd encourage everyone to present their ideas and the reasoning behind them.
I'd emphasise the importance of examining evidence and logic to determine the best course of action. Ultimately, the team's consensus would guide our decision, ensuring that everyone is on board with the chosen direction, promoting unity and collaboration to achieve our project's objectives .”
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“The best sales approach depends on the specific context and goals. If a business can justify higher prices by offering superior value, increasing prices can lead to higher revenues. On the other hand, lowering prices can improve customer satisfaction and potentially increase sales volume.
A balanced approach might involve segmenting the market and offering different pricing strategies to cater to various customer segments. Ultimately, the key is to find the right balance between price and value to meet both revenue and customer satisfaction objectives .”
“I evaluate the credibility of a source by considering several factors. First, I assess the author's qualifications and expertise in the subject matter. Then, I examine the publication source, looking for reputable and trusted outlets.
I also check for citations and references to credible sources within the content. Additionally, I consider the publication date to ensure the information is current and relevant. Lastly, I look for any potential biases or conflicts of interest that may affect the source's reliability.”
“In a previous job, I had to present a complex technical project to a diverse audience, including non-technical stakeholders. To ensure clarity and engagement, I adapted my communication style by simplifying technical jargon, using visual aids, and real-life analogies. This approach made the presentation accessible to everyone, fostering better understanding and buy-in from all participants, even those with limited technical background.”
“When faced with a complex problem, I start by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable components. I research and gather relevant information to fully understand the issue and its context. Then, I brainstorm potential solutions and evaluate their pros and cons.
Next, I collaborate with colleagues to gain diverse perspectives and insights. Finally, I prioriti s e the most effective solution and create a well-structured plan to address the problem systematically.”
Can you give an example of a time when you had to think on your feet during a crisis.
“I recall a situation during a critical project when our main supplier suddenly encountered production issues, jeopardising our timeline. In response, I quickly initiated contact with alternative suppliers, assessed their capabilities, and secured a backup source. This proactive approach ensured minimal disruption to our project and demonstrated my ability to adapt and make decisive decisions under pressure.”
“One notable instance was when our company faced a sudden network outage during a critical client presentation. Without panicking, I swiftly coordinated with the IT team, initiated a backup plan, and reassured the client by sharing the presentation on our mobile devices. This quick thinking ensured that the meeting continued smoothly, demonstrating our commitment to resolving issues under pressure and maintaining a strong client relationship.”
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Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care ...
Fortunately, your critical thinking skills are learned competencies and not inherent gifts - and that means you can improve them. Here's how: Practice active listening: Active listening helps you process and understand what other people share. That's crucial as you aim to be open-minded and inquisitive.
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2. Understand your mental process. Identify and evaluate how you receive and process information. Understanding how you listen, then interpret, and finally react to information is vital to becoming more mentally efficient in the workplace. Being a critical thinker means you recognize your prejudices and how they influence solutions and decisions.
In recent decades, approaches to critical thinking have generally taken a practical turn, pivoting away from more abstract accounts - such as emphasizing the logical relations that hold between statements (Ennis, 1964) - and moving toward an emphasis on belief and action.According to the definition that Robert Ennis (2018) has been advocating for the last few decades, critical thinking is ...
By encouraging open dialogue and collaborative problem-solving, you create an environment that fosters the development of critical thinking skills in others. 7. Reflect and learn from the process. The seven-step critical thinking process yields a result—and you then need to put that solution into place.
Decision-making improves Applying critical thinking helps you make decisions that require a lot of thought. Big, life-changing decisions, like whether or not to make a career move, are aided by critical thinking, which encourages you to research and favor objective logic over your initial emotional response. Read more: 12 Decision-Making Strategies
Critical thinking skills examples. There are six main skills you can develop to successfully analyze facts and situations and come up with logical conclusions: 1. Analytical thinking. Being able to properly analyze information is the most important aspect of critical thinking. This implies gathering information and interpreting it, but also ...
A high-performing leader demonstrates strong critical-thinking skills and is decisive. They know when they need to be tactical in their approach, and do so with informed decision-making and ...
6. Ask lots of open-ended questions. Curiosity is a key trait of critical thinkers, so channel your inner child and ask lots of "who," "what," and "why" questions. 7. Find your own reputable ...
Abreu, Jason; Baker, Susan; and Jayson-Polk, Ruth, "The Organizational Handbook to Promote Critical Thinking and Decision Making" (2017). Fischler College of Education: Student Articles. 19. This Working Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Abraham S. Fischler College of Education at NSUWorks.
The ability to use reasoned opinion focusing equally on processes and outcomes over emotions is called critical thinking (Paul and Elder, 2008). Critical thinking skills are desired in almost every discipline and play a major role in decision-making and daily judgments. The roots of critical thinking date back to Socrates 2,500 years ago and ...
Critical thinking and clinical judgement involve reflective and logical thinking skills and play a vital role in the decision-making and problem-solving processes . The first search was conducted between March and September 2022, and an additional search was conducted during October 2023, adding the new articles published between September 2022 ...
Developing critical-thinking skills involves continuous learning, reflection on practice, openness to diverse perspectives, and structured problem-solving approaches like SWOT analysis. ... Clinical decision-making then uses critical thinking and clinical judgment to select the best course of action for optimal patient care. Together, these ...
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Critical thinking skills are in demand across various roles and industries. Interviewers often ask questions to assess your problem-solving abilities and logical thinking. To impress potential employers, use examples that highlight your analytical decision-making process. In this article, we present Critical-thinking Interview Questions you ...