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How to Write a Research Paper: the LEAP approach (+cheat sheet)

In this article I will show you how to write a research paper using the four LEAP writing steps. The LEAP academic writing approach is a step-by-step method for turning research results into a published paper .

The LEAP writing approach has been the cornerstone of the 70 + research papers that I have authored and the 3700+ citations these paper have accumulated within 9 years since the completion of my PhD. I hope the LEAP approach will help you just as much as it has helped me to make an real, tangible impact with my research.

What is the LEAP research paper writing approach?

I designed the LEAP writing approach not only for merely writing the papers. My goal with the writing system was to show young scientists how to first think about research results and then how to efficiently write each section of the research paper.

In other words, you will see how to write a research paper by first analyzing the results and then building a logical, persuasive arguments. In this way, instead of being afraid of writing research paper, you will be able to rely on the paper writing process to help you with what is the most demanding task in getting published – thinking.

The four research paper writing steps according to the LEAP approach:

I will show each of these steps in detail. And you will be able to download the LEAP cheat sheet for using with every paper you write.

But before I tell you how to efficiently write a research paper, I want to show you what is the problem with the way scientists typically write a research paper and why the LEAP approach is more efficient.

How scientists typically write a research paper (and why it isn’t efficient)

Writing a research paper can be tough, especially for a young scientist. Your reasoning needs to be persuasive and thorough enough to convince readers of your arguments. The description has to be derived from research evidence, from prior art, and from your own judgment. This is a tough feat to accomplish.

The figure below shows the sequence of the different parts of a typical research paper. Depending on the scientific journal, some sections might be merged or nonexistent, but the general outline of a research paper will remain very similar.

Here is the problem: Most people make the mistake of writing in this same sequence.

While the structure of scientific articles is designed to help the reader follow the research, it does little to help the scientist write the paper. This is because the layout of research articles starts with the broad (introduction) and narrows down to the specifics (results). See in the figure below how the research paper is structured in terms of the breath of information that each section entails.

How to write a research paper according to the LEAP approach

For a scientist, it is much easier to start writing a research paper with laying out the facts in the narrow sections (i.e. results), step back to describe them (i.e. write the discussion), and step back again to explain the broader picture in the introduction.

For example, it might feel intimidating to start writing a research paper by explaining your research’s global significance in the introduction, while it is easy to plot the figures in the results. When plotting the results, there is not much room for wiggle: the results are what they are.

Starting to write a research papers from the results is also more fun because you finally get to see and understand the complete picture of the research that you have worked on.

Most importantly, following the LEAP approach will help you first make sense of the results yourself and then clearly communicate them to the readers. That is because the sequence of writing allows you to slowly understand the meaning of the results and then develop arguments for presenting to your readers.

I have personally been able to write and submit a research article in three short days using this method.

Step 1: Lay Out the Facts

You have worked long hours on a research project that has produced results and are no doubt curious to determine what they exactly mean. There is no better way to do this than by preparing figures, graphics and tables. This is what the first LEAP step is focused on – diving into the results.

How to p repare charts and tables for a research paper

Your first task is to try out different ways of visually demonstrating the research results. In many fields, the central items of a journal paper will be charts that are based on the data generated during research. In other fields, these might be conceptual diagrams, microscopy images, schematics and a number of other types of scientific graphics which should visually communicate the research study and its results to the readers. If you have reasonably small number of data points, data tables might be useful as well.

Tips for preparing charts and tables

• Try multiple chart types but in the finished paper only use the one that best conveys the message you want to present to the readers
• Follow the eight chart design progressions for selecting and refining a data chart for your paper: https://peerrecognized.com/chart-progressions
• Prepare scientific graphics and visualizations for your paper using the scientific graphic design cheat sheet: https://peerrecognized.com/tools-for-creating-scientific-illustrations/

How to describe the results of your research

Now that you have your data charts, graphics and tables laid out in front of you – describe what you see in them. Seek to answer the question: What have I found?  Your statements should progress in a logical sequence and be backed by the visual information. Since, at this point, you are simply explaining what everyone should be able to see for themselves, you can use a declarative tone: The figure X demonstrates that…

Tips for describing the research results :

• Answer the question: “ What have I found? “
• Use declarative tone since you are simply describing observations

Step 2: Explain the results

The core aspect of your research paper is not actually the results; it is the explanation of their meaning. In the second LEAP step, you will do some heavy lifting by guiding the readers through the results using logic backed by previous scientific research.

How to define the Message of a research paper

To define the central message of your research paper, imagine how you would explain your research to a colleague in 20 seconds . If you succeed in effectively communicating your paper’s message, a reader should be able to recount your findings in a similarly concise way even a year after reading it. This clarity will increase the chances that someone uses the knowledge you generated, which in turn raises the likelihood of citations to your research paper. 

Tips for defining the paper’s central message :

• Write the paper’s core message in a single sentence or two bullet points
• Write the core message in the header of the research paper manuscript

How to write the Discussion section of a research paper

In the discussion section you have to demonstrate why your research paper is worthy of publishing. In other words, you must now answer the all-important So what? question . How well you do so will ultimately define the success of your research paper.

Here are three steps to get started with writing the discussion section:

• Write bullet points of the things that convey the central message of the research article (these may evolve into subheadings later on).
• Make a list with the arguments or observations that support each idea.
• Finally, expand on each point to make full sentences and paragraphs.

Tips for writing the discussion section:

• What is the meaning of the results?
• Was the hypothesis confirmed?
• Write bullet points that support the core message
• List logical arguments for each bullet point, group them into sections
• Instead of repeating research timeline, use a presentation sequence that best supports your logic
• Convert arguments to full paragraphs; be confident but do not overhype
• Refer to both supportive and contradicting research papers for maximum credibility

How to write the Conclusions of a research paper

Since some readers might just skim through your research paper and turn directly to the conclusions, it is a good idea to make conclusion a standalone piece. In the first few sentences of the conclusions, briefly summarize the methodology and try to avoid using abbreviations (if you do, explain what they mean).

After this introduction, summarize the findings from the discussion section. Either paragraph style or bullet-point style conclusions can be used. I prefer the bullet-point style because it clearly separates the different conclusions and provides an easy-to-digest overview for the casual browser. It also forces me to be more succinct.

Tips for writing the conclusion section :

• Summarize the key findings, starting with the most important one
• Make conclusions standalone (short summary, avoid abbreviations)
• Add an optional take-home message and suggest future research in the last paragraph

How to refine the Objective of a research paper

The objective is a short, clear statement defining the paper’s research goals. It can be included either in the final paragraph of the introduction, or as a separate subsection after the introduction. Avoid writing long paragraphs with in-depth reasoning, references, and explanation of methodology since these belong in other sections. The paper’s objective can often be written in a single crisp sentence.

Tips for writing the objective section :

• The objective should ask the question that is answered by the central message of the research paper
• The research objective should be clear long before writing a paper. At this point, you are simply refining it to make sure it is addressed in the body of the paper.

How to write the Methodology section of your research paper

When writing the methodology section, aim for a depth of explanation that will allow readers to reproduce the study . This means that if you are using a novel method, you will have to describe it thoroughly. If, on the other hand, you applied a standardized method, or used an approach from another paper, it will be enough to briefly describe it with reference to the detailed original source.

Remember to also detail the research population, mention how you ensured representative sampling, and elaborate on what statistical methods you used to analyze the results.

Tips for writing the methodology section :

• Include enough detail to allow reproducing the research
• Provide references if the methods are known
• Create a methodology flow chart to add clarity
• Describe the research population, sampling methodology, statistical methods for result analysis
• Describe what methodology, test methods, materials, and sample groups were used in the research.

Step 3: Advertize the research

Step 3 of the LEAP writing approach is designed to entice the casual browser into reading your research paper. This advertising can be done with an informative title, an intriguing abstract, as well as a thorough explanation of the underlying need for doing the research within the introduction.

How to write the Introduction of a research paper

The introduction section should leave no doubt in the mind of the reader that what you are doing is important and that this work could push scientific knowledge forward. To do this convincingly, you will need to have a good knowledge of what is state-of-the-art in your field. You also need be able to see the bigger picture in order to demonstrate the potential impacts of your research work.

Think of the introduction as a funnel, going from wide to narrow, as shown in the figure below:

• Start with a brief context to explain what do we already know,
• Follow with the motivation for the research study and explain why should we care about it,
• Explain the research gap you are going to bridge within this research paper,
• Describe the approach you will take to solve the problem.

Tips for writing the introduction section :

• Follow the Context – Motivation – Research gap – Approach funnel for writing the introduction
• Explain how others tried and how you plan to solve the research problem
• Do a thorough literature review before writing the introduction
• Start writing the introduction by using your own words, then add references from the literature

How to prepare the Abstract of a research paper

The abstract acts as your paper’s elevator pitch and is therefore best written only after the main text is finished. In this one short paragraph you must convince someone to take on the time-consuming task of reading your whole research article. So, make the paper easy to read, intriguing, and self-explanatory; avoid jargon and abbreviations.

How to structure the abstract of a research paper:

• The abstract is a single paragraph that follows this structure:
• Problem: why did we research this
• Methodology: typically starts with the words “Here we…” that signal the start of own contribution.
• Results: what we found from the research.
• Conclusions: show why are the findings important

How to compose a research paper Title

The title is the ultimate summary of a research paper. It must therefore entice someone looking for information to click on a link to it and continue reading the article. A title is also used for indexing purposes in scientific databases, so a representative and optimized title will play large role in determining if your research paper appears in search results at all.

Tips for coming up with a research paper title:

• Capture curiosity of potential readers using a clear and descriptive title
• Include broad terms that are often searched
• Add details that uniquely identify the researched subject of your research paper
• Avoid jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords as title extension (instead of duplicating the words) to increase the chance of appearing in search results

How to prepare Highlights and Graphical Abstract

Highlights are three to five short bullet-point style statements that convey the core findings of the research paper. Notice that the focus is on the findings, not on the process of getting there.

A graphical abstract placed next to the textual abstract visually summarizes the entire research paper in a single, easy-to-follow figure. I show how to create a graphical abstract in my book Research Data Visualization and Scientific Graphics.

Tips for preparing highlights and graphical abstract:

• In highlights show core findings of the research paper (instead of what you did in the study).
• In graphical abstract show take-home message or methodology of the research paper. Learn more about creating a graphical abstract in this article.

Step 4: Prepare for submission

Sometimes it seems that nuclear fusion will stop on the star closest to us (read: the sun will stop to shine) before a submitted manuscript is published in a scientific journal. The publication process routinely takes a long time, and after submitting the manuscript you have very little control over what happens. To increase the chances of a quick publication, you must do your homework before submitting the manuscript. In the fourth LEAP step, you make sure that your research paper is published in the most appropriate journal as quickly and painlessly as possible.

How to select a scientific Journal for your research paper

The best way to find a journal for your research paper is it to review which journals you used while preparing your manuscript. This source listing should provide some assurance that your own research paper, once published, will be among similar articles and, thus, among your field’s trusted sources.

After this initial selection of hand-full of scientific journals, consider the following six parameters for selecting the most appropriate journal for your research paper (read this article to review each step in detail):

• Scope and publishing history
• Ranking and Recognition
• Publishing time
• Acceptance rate
• Content requirements
• Access and Fees

How to select a journal for your research paper:

• Use the six parameters to select the most appropriate scientific journal for your research paper
• Use the following tools for journal selection: https://peerrecognized.com/journals
• Follow the journal’s “Authors guide” formatting requirements

How to Edit you manuscript

No one can write a finished research paper on their first attempt. Before submitting, make sure to take a break from your work for a couple of days, or even weeks. Try not to think about the manuscript during this time. Once it has faded from your memory, it is time to return and edit. The pause will allow you to read the manuscript from a fresh perspective and make edits as necessary.

I have summarized the most useful research paper editing tools in this article.

Tips for editing a research paper:

• Take time away from the research paper to forget about it; then returning to edit,
• Start by editing the content: structure, headings, paragraphs, logic, figures
• Continue by editing the grammar and language; perform a thorough language check using academic writing tools
• Read the entire paper out loud and correct what sounds weird

How to write a compelling Cover Letter for your paper

Begin the cover letter by stating the paper’s title and the type of paper you are submitting (review paper, research paper, short communication). Next, concisely explain why your study was performed, what was done, and what the key findings are. State why the results are important and what impact they might have in the field. Make sure you mention how your approach and findings relate to the scope of the journal in order to show why the article would be of interest to the journal’s readers.

I wrote a separate article that explains what to include in a cover letter here. You can also download a cover letter template from the article.

Tips for writing a cover letter:

• Explain how the findings of your research relate to journal’s scope
• Tell what impact the research results will have
• Show why the research paper will interest the journal’s audience
• Add any legal statements as required in journal’s guide for authors

How to Answer the Reviewers

Reviewers will often ask for new experiments, extended discussion, additional details on the experimental setup, and so forth. In principle, your primary winning tactic will be to agree with the reviewers and follow their suggestions whenever possible. After all, you must earn their blessing in order to get your paper published.

Be sure to answer each review query and stick to the point. In the response to the reviewers document write exactly where in the paper you have made any changes. In the paper itself, highlight the changes using a different color. This way the reviewers are less likely to re-read the entire article and suggest new edits.

In cases when you don’t agree with the reviewers, it makes sense to answer more thoroughly. Reviewers are scientifically minded people and so, with enough logical and supported argument, they will eventually be willing to see things your way.

Tips for answering the reviewers:

• Agree with most review comments, but if you don’t, thoroughly explain why
• Highlight changes in the manuscript
• Do not take the comments personally and cool down before answering

The LEAP research paper writing cheat sheet

Imagine that you are back in grad school and preparing to take an exam on the topic: “How to write a research paper”. As an exemplary student, you would, most naturally, create a cheat sheet summarizing the subject… Well, I did it for you.

This one-page summary of the LEAP research paper writing technique will remind you of the key research paper writing steps. Print it out and stick it to a wall in your office so that you can review it whenever you are writing a new research paper.

Now that we have gone through the four LEAP research paper writing steps, I hope you have a good idea of how to write a research paper. It can be an enjoyable process and once you get the hang of it, the four LEAP writing steps should even help you think about and interpret the research results. This process should enable you to write a well-structured, concise, and compelling research paper.

Have fund with writing your next research paper. I hope it will turn out great!

Learn writing papers that get cited

The LEAP writing approach is a blueprint for writing research papers. But to be efficient and write papers that get cited, you need more than that.

My name is Martins Zaumanis and in my interactive course Research Paper Writing Masterclass I will show you how to  visualize  your research results,  frame a message  that convinces your readers, and write  each section  of the paper. Step-by-step.

And of course – you will learn to respond the infamous  Reviewer No.2.

Hey! My name is Martins Zaumanis and I am a materials scientist in Switzerland ( Google Scholar ). As the first person in my family with a PhD, I have first-hand experience of the challenges starting scientists face in academia. With this blog, I want to help young researchers succeed in academia. I call the blog “Peer Recognized”, because peer recognition is what lifts academic careers and pushes science forward.

Besides this blog, I have written the Peer Recognized book series and created the Peer Recognized Academy offering interactive online courses.

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Toolkit: How to write a great paper

A clear format will ensure that your research paper is understood by your readers. Follow:

1. Context — your introduction

2. Content — your results

3. Conclusion — your discussion

Plan your paper carefully and decide where each point will sit within the framework before you begin writing.

Collection: Careers toolkit

Straightforward writing

Scientific writing should always aim to be A, B and C: Accurate, Brief, and Clear. Never choose a long word when a short one will do. Use simple language to communicate your results. Always aim to distill your message down into the simplest sentence possible.

Choose a title

A carefully conceived title will communicate the single core message of your research paper. It should be D, E, F: Declarative, Engaging and Focused.

Conclusions

Add a sentence or two at the end of your concluding statement that sets out your plans for further research. What is next for you or others working in your field?

Find out more

See additional information .

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-01362-9

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

Can you help me with a full paper template for this Abstract:

Background: Energy and sports drinks have gained popularity among diverse demographic groups, including adolescents, athletes, workers, and college students. While often used interchangeably, these beverages serve distinct purposes, with energy drinks aiming to boost energy and cognitive performance, and sports drinks designed to prevent dehydration and replenish electrolytes and carbohydrates lost during physical exertion.

Objective: To assess the nutritional quality of energy and sports drinks in Egypt.

Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed the nutrient contents, including energy, sugar, electrolytes, vitamins, and caffeine, of sports and energy drinks available in major supermarkets in Cairo, Alexandria, and Giza, Egypt. Data collection involved photographing all relevant product labels and recording nutritional information. Descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tests were employed to analyze and compare the nutritional values of energy and sports drinks.

Results: The study analyzed 38 sports drinks and 42 energy drinks. Sports drinks were significantly more expensive than energy drinks, with higher net content and elevated magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C. Energy drinks contained higher concentrations of caffeine, sugars, and vitamins B2, B3, and B6.

Conclusion: Significant nutritional differences exist between sports and energy drinks, reflecting their intended uses. However, these beverages’ high sugar content and calorie loads raise health concerns. Proper labeling, public awareness, and responsible marketing are essential to guide safe consumption practices in Egypt.

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• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

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With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms , including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies , or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data , conducting interviews, or doing field research .

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research . Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research . Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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Home / Guides / Writing Guides / Paper Types / How to Write a Research Paper

How to Write a Research Paper

Research papers are a requirement for most college courses, so knowing how to write a research paper is important. These in-depth pieces of academic writing can seem pretty daunting, but there’s no need to panic. When broken down into its key components, writing your paper should be a manageable and, dare we say it, enjoyable task.

We’re going to look at the required elements of a paper in detail, and you might also find this webpage to be a  useful reference .

Guide Overview

• What is a research paper?
• How to start a research paper
• Get clear instructions
• Brainstorm ideas
• Choose a topic
• Outline your outline
• Make friends with your librarian
• Find quality sources
• Understand your topic
• A detailed outline
• Keep it factual
• Finalize your thesis statement
• Think about format
• Cite, cite and cite
• The editing process
• Final checks

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is more than just an extra long essay or encyclopedic regurgitation of facts and figures. The aim of this task is to combine in-depth study of a particular topic with critical thinking and evaluation by the student—that’s you!

There are two main types of research paper: argumentative and analytical.

Argumentative  — takes a stance on a particular topic right from the start, with the aim of persuading the reader of the validity of the argument. These are best suited to topics that are debatable or controversial.

Analytical  — takes no firm stance on a topic initially. Instead it asks a question and should come to an answer through the evaluation of source material. As its name suggests, the aim is to analyze the source material and offer a fresh perspective on the results.

If you wish to further your understanding, you can  learn more here .

A required word count (think thousands!) can make writing that paper seem like an insurmountable task. Don’t worry! Our step-by-step guide will help you write that killer paper with confidence.

How to Start a Research Paper

Don’t rush ahead. Taking care during the planning and preparation stage will save time and hassle later.

Get Clear Instructions

Your lecturer or professor is your biggest ally—after all, they want you to do well. Make sure you get clear guidance from them on both the required format and preferred topics. In some cases, your tutor will assign a topic, or give you a set list to choose from. Often, however, you’ll be expected to select a suitable topic for yourself.

Having a research paper example to look at can also be useful for first-timers, so ask your tutor to supply you with one.

Brainstorm Ideas

Brainstorming research paper ideas is the first step to selecting a topic—and there are various methods you can use to brainstorm, including clustering (also known as mind mapping). Think about the research paper topics that interest you, and identify topics you have a strong opinion on.

Choose a Topic

Once you have a list of potential research paper topics, narrow them down by considering your academic strengths and ‘gaps in the market,’ e.g., don’t choose a common topic that’s been written about many times before. While you want your topic to be fresh and interesting, you also need to ensure there’s enough material available for you to work with. Similarly, while you shouldn’t go for easy research paper topics just for the sake of giving yourself less work, you do need to choose a topic that you feel confident you can do justice to.

Outline Your Outline

It might not be possible to form a full research paper outline until you’ve done some information gathering, but you can think about your overall aim; basically what you want to show and how you’re going to show it. Now’s also a good time to consider your thesis statement, although this might change as you delve into your source material deeper.

Researching the Research

Now it’s time to knuckle down and dig out all the information that’s relevant to your topic. Here are some tips.

Make Friends With Your Librarian

While lots of information gathering can be carried out online from anywhere, there’s still a place for old-fashioned study sessions in the library. A good librarian can help you to locate sources quickly and easily, and might even make suggestions that you hadn’t thought of. They’re great at helping you study and research, but probably can’t save you the best desk by the window.

Find Quality Sources

Not all sources are created equal, so make sure that you’re referring to reputable, reliable information. Examples of sources could include books, magazine articles, scholarly articles, reputable websites, databases and journals. Keywords relating to your topic can help you in your search.

As you search, you should begin to compile a list of references. This will make it much easier later when you are ready to build your paper’s bibliography. Keeping clear notes detailing any sources that you use will help you to avoid accidentally plagiarizing someone else’s work or ideas.

Understand Your Topic

Simply regurgitating facts and figures won’t make for an interesting paper. It’s essential that you fully understand your topic so you can come across as an authority on the subject and present your own ideas on it. You should read around your topic as widely as you can, before narrowing your area of interest for your paper, and critically analyzing your findings.

A Detailed Outline

Once you’ve got a firm grip on your subject and the source material available to you, formulate a detailed outline, including your thesis statement and how you are going to support it. The structure of your paper will depend on the subject type—ask a tutor for a research paper outline example if you’re unsure.

Get Writing!

If you’ve fully understood your topic and gathered quality source materials, bringing it all together should actually be the easy part!

Keep it Factual

There’s no place for sloppy writing in this kind of academic task, so keep your language simple and clear, and your points critical and succinct. The creative part is finding innovative angles and new insights on the topic to make your paper interesting.

Don’t forget about our  verb ,  preposition , and  adverb  pages. You may find useful information to help with your writing!

Finalize Your Thesis Statement

You should now be in a position to finalize your thesis statement, showing clearly what your paper will show, answer or prove. This should usually be a one or two sentence statement; however, it’s the core idea of your paper, and every insight that you include should be relevant to it. Remember, a thesis statement is not merely a summary of your findings. It should present an argument or perspective that the rest of your paper aims to support.

Think About Format

The required style of your research paper format will usually depend on your subject area. For example,  APA format  is normally used for social science subjects, while MLA style is most commonly used for liberal arts and humanities. Still, there are thousands of  more styles . Your tutor should be able to give you clear guidance on how to format your paper, how to structure it, and what elements it should include. Make sure that you follow their instruction. If possible, ask to see a sample research paper in the required format.

Cite, Cite and Cite

As all research paper topics invariably involve referring to other people’s work, it’s vital that you know how to properly cite your sources to avoid unintentional plagiarism. Whether you’re paraphrasing (putting someone else’s ideas into your own words) or directly quoting, the original source needs to be referenced. What style of citation formatting you use will depend on the requirements of your instructor, with common styles including APA and  MLA format , which consist of in-text citations (short citations within the text, enclosed with parentheses) and a reference/works cited list.

The Editing Process

It’s likely that your paper will go through several drafts before you arrive at the very best version. The editing process is your chance to fix any weak points in your paper before submission. You might find that it needs a better balance of both primary and secondary sources (click through to find  more info  on the difference), that an  adjective  could use tweaking, or that you’ve included sources that aren’t relevant or credible. You might even feel that you need to be clearer in your argument, more thorough in your critical analysis, or more balanced in your evaluation.

From a stylistic point of view, you want to ensure that your writing is clear, simple and concise, with no long, rambling sentences or paragraphs. Keeping within the required word count parameters is also important, and another thing to keep in mind is the inclusion of gender-neutral language, to avoid the reinforcement of tired stereotypes.

Don’t forget about our other pages! If you are looking for help with other grammar-related topics, check out our  noun ,  pronoun , and  conjunction  pages.

Final Checks

Once you’re happy with the depth and balance of the arguments and points presented, you can turn your attention to the finer details, such as formatting, spelling, punctuation, grammar and ensuring that your citations are all present and correct. The EasyBib Plus  plagiarism checker  is a handy tool for making sure that your sources are all cited. An EasyBib Plus subscription also comes with access to citation tools that can help you create citations in your choice of format.

Also, double-check your deadline date and the submissions guidelines to avoid any last-minute issues. Take a peek at our other grammar pages while you’re at it. We’ve included numerous links on this page, but we also have an  interjection  page and  determiner  page.

So you’ve done your final checks and handed in your paper according to the submissions guidelines and preferably before deadline day. Congratulations! If your schedule permits, now would be a great time to take a break from your studies. Maybe plan a fun activity with friends or just take the opportunity to rest and relax. A well-earned break from the books will ensure that you return to class refreshed and ready for your next stage of learning—and the next  research paper  requirement your tutor sets!

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How to start your research paper [step-by-step guide]

1. Choose your topic

2. find information on your topic, 3. create a thesis statement, 4. create a research paper outline, 5. organize your notes, 6. write your introduction, 7. write your first draft of the body, 9. write your conclusion, 10. revise again, edit, and proofread, frequently asked questions about starting your research paper, related articles.

Research papers can be short or in-depth, but no matter what type of research paper, they all follow pretty much the same pattern and have the same structure .

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

There will be some basic differences, but if you can write one type of research paper, you can write another. Below is a step-by-step guide to starting and completing your research paper.

Choose a topic that interests you. Writing your research paper will be so much more pleasant with a topic that you actually want to know more about. Your interest will show in the way you write and effort you put into the paper. Consider these issues when coming up with a topic:

• make sure your topic is not too broad
• narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general

Academic search engines are a great source to find background information on your topic. Your institution's library will most likely provide access to plenty of online research databases. Take a look at our guide on how to efficiently search online databases for academic research to learn how to gather all the information needed on your topic.

Tip: If you’re struggling with finding research, consider meeting with an academic librarian to help you come up with more balanced keywords.

If you’re struggling to find a topic for your thesis, take a look at our guide on how to come up with a thesis topic .

The thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any piece of academic writing. It can be defined as a very brief statement of what the main point or central message of your paper is. Our thesis statement guide will help you write an excellent thesis statement.

In the next step, you need to create your research paper outline . The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

Then, fill out your outline with the following components:

• the main ideas that you want to cover in the paper
• the types of evidence that you will use to support your argument
• quotes from secondary sources that you may want to use

Organizing all the information you have gathered according to your outline will help you later on in the writing process. Analyze your notes, check for accuracy, verify the information, and make sure you understand all the information you have gathered in a way that you can communicate your findings effectively.

Start with the introduction. It will set the direction of your paper and help you a lot as you write. Waiting to write it at the end can leave you with a poorly written setup to an otherwise well-written paper.

The body of your paper argues, explains or describes your topic. Start with the first topic from your outline. Ideally, you have organized your notes in a way that you can work through your research paper outline and have all the notes ready.

After your first draft, take some time to check the paper for content errors. Rearrange ideas, make changes and check if the order of your paragraphs makes sense. At this point, it is helpful to re-read the research paper guidelines and make sure you have followed the format requirements. You can also use free grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

Tip: Consider reading your paper from back to front when you undertake your initial revision. This will help you ensure that your argument and organization are sound.

Write your conclusion last and avoid including any new information that has not already been presented in the body of the paper. Your conclusion should wrap up your paper and show that your research question has been answered.

Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit, and proofread your paper.

Tip: Take a break from your paper before you start your final revisions. Then, you’ll be able to approach your paper with fresh eyes.

As part of your final revision, be sure to check that you’ve cited everything correctly and that you have a full bibliography. Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize your research and to create accurate citations.

The first step to start writing a research paper is to choose a topic. Make sure your topic is not too broad; narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general.

The format of your research paper will vary depending on the journal you submit to. Make sure to check first which citation style does the journal follow, in order to format your paper accordingly. Check Getting started with your research paper outline to have an idea of what a research paper looks like.

The last step of your research paper should be proofreading. Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit and proofread your paper.

There are plenty of software you can use to write a research paper. We recommend our own citation software, Paperpile , as well as grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: can llms generate novel research ideas a large-scale human study with 100+ nlp researchers.

Abstract: Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have sparked optimism about their potential to accelerate scientific discovery, with a growing number of works proposing research agents that autonomously generate and validate new ideas. Despite this, no evaluations have shown that LLM systems can take the very first step of producing novel, expert-level ideas, let alone perform the entire research process. We address this by establishing an experimental design that evaluates research idea generation while controlling for confounders and performs the first head-to-head comparison between expert NLP researchers and an LLM ideation agent. By recruiting over 100 NLP researchers to write novel ideas and blind reviews of both LLM and human ideas, we obtain the first statistically significant conclusion on current LLM capabilities for research ideation: we find LLM-generated ideas are judged as more novel (p < 0.05) than human expert ideas while being judged slightly weaker on feasibility. Studying our agent baselines closely, we identify open problems in building and evaluating research agents, including failures of LLM self-evaluation and their lack of diversity in generation. Finally, we acknowledge that human judgements of novelty can be difficult, even by experts, and propose an end-to-end study design which recruits researchers to execute these ideas into full projects, enabling us to study whether these novelty and feasibility judgements result in meaningful differences in research outcome.

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More From Forbes

Ai tools fuel rise of fake research papers on google scholar.

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AI ethics are in question when scientific papers use AI without disclosing or AI is tapped to ... [+] produce completely fake research results.

There’s a quote frequently attributed to Mark Twain that goes, “A lie can travel halfway around the world before the truth can get on its boots.” Whether or not Twain truly said that, a reality in the age of AI is it’s becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish truth from fiction .

New evidence supporting that fact comes from a group of Swedish researchers that just issued its findings regarding a growing number of fake scientific papers published to Google Scholar . The study found that more than 130 submissions either used AI without proper disclosure or were entirely faked using AI tools.

Google Scholar Not So Scholarly?

The researchers decided to conduct a mini-scrape of the Google Scholar index looking for two commonly generated phrases that public AI tools such as ChatGPT or Claude provide as part of the answers produced in response to prompts. The two phrases are:

• "as of my last knowledge update"
• "I don\'t have access to real-time data"

If either or both of those obvious genAI phrases were found in one of the papers uploaded to Google Scholar the team flagged it, and looked it over for proper acknowledgement that an AI tool was used as part of that specific paper’s study methodology.

The search flagged 227 papers, of which 139 papers failed to cite, mention or reference any use of AI—despite its clear use. It’s worth noting that Google Scholar reportedly has more than 389 million records on its website and the researchers’ sample represents a miniscule 0.0000003573% of all published papers.

Google Warns Millions Of Android Users—Do Not Install These Apps

Ukrainian troops breached russian border defenses 20 miles west of the kursk salient—but didn’t get very far, ‘shock and awe’—china could be about to trigger a $1.4 trillion bitcoin and crypto price earthquake.

Regardless, researcher Kristofer Rolf Söderström from Lund University, Sweden explained in an email exchange why his team’s study to callout sham science was necessary.

“With this research, we wanted to address the issue by looking into how common this is, especially because Google Scholar is so easy to use and it is very widely used, even by ourselves, but actually it is not that well controlled,” Söderström wrote.

“Our motivation was that the depth of the issue could be mitigated by such an investigation, thus making an early contribution to highlight the growing concern of undeclared GPT-use in academic papers since this runs the risk of ill-will hacking of society’s evidence base. But really, just the possibility of this happening—even if it is quite uncommon—risks further undermining trust in science, and that this is the last thing society needs right now.”

AI Makes Science Easier and More Accessible To Fake

Söderström highlighted that there are two main risks from this type of scientific flimflammery.

First is the increasing risk that undeclared and mischievous use of genAI in scholarly research produces believable—but still false—academic publications that can be tricky to detect.

Second, the sheer quantity of papers that large language models can produce suggests that the scholarly record risks being overwhelmed with bogus studies.

“One of our findings was that many of these papers have spread to several repositories online, and have appeared in social media. This is a common and mostly automated process, but it makes retractions or corrections of research extremely difficult. Especially because Google Scholar will keep on finding and displaying them,” he wrote.

AI Is Not To Blame —They Blame a Broken System

However, Söderström and his colleagues point out that AI itself isn’t the core problem it’s merely a tool that academicians have found to try and survive within the flawed “publish or perish” culture at most research universities.

The publishing of phony science papers is further compounded given Google’s disproportionate control over scholarly papers, search engines and basic access to online information.

He said the team is doing a larger, deeper dive on this specific topic since their initial query was so limited, but it turned up some many issues and left so many questions unanswered.

“While it is not clear that all papers were actually produced by individuals – they might also be produced by so-called paper mills producing results from fake studies resembling scholarly publications – there might be several potential reasons. The pressure for researchers to continuously publish scholarly output, which can be conducted more frequently through the use of LLM misconduct, could be one of the reasons,” Söderström expressed in the email.

The report doesn’t offer any simple solutions, but it does suggest a multi-pronged approach that needs to include technical, regulatory and educational components to protect the truth.

Let’s just hope we don’t have to wait much longer for it to get its boots on.

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Smoothing Out Momentum and Reversal

Swiss Finance Institute Research Paper No. 24-47

36 Pages Posted: 13 Sep 2024

Soros Chitsiripanich

University of zurich - department finance, marc s. paolella.

University of Zurich - Department Finance; Swiss Finance Institute

Pawel Polak

Stony Brook University-Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics; Institute for Advanced Computational Science

Patrick S. Walker

University of Zurich, Department of Banking and Finance; OLZ AG

Date Written: August 30, 2024

We introduce new path-dependent constraints within a sequential portfolio optimization framework designed to reduce turnover in frequently rebalanced investment strategies, such as momentum and short-term reversal. This method classifies individual assets into distinct groups based on their attractiveness from signal and rebalancing perspectives, effectively managing the trade-off between anomaly-based predictability and the required trading volume for exploitation. These constraints function independently from the ℓ 1 portfolio turnover regularization, which manages reallocation at the aggregated portfolio level, proving more effective in enhancing net profitability. The combined turnover management mechanisms reduce the turnover of daily-rebalanced momentum and reversal portfolios by 95-99%, aligning closely with traditional monthly-rebalanced strategies. Furthermore, our method captures signals more promptly, resulting in more stable portfolios, a substantial reduction in maximum drawdown from 76-99% to 22-49%, and an improvement in risk-adjusted net returns by 38-149%, all under realistic transaction cost assumptions.

Keywords: Fractional Differencing, Momentum Crashes, Momentum Factor, Portfolio Optimization, Regularization, Reversal Strategy

JEL Classification: C32, C53, C61, G11, G17

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

University of Zurich - Department Finance ( email )

Plattenstrasse 14 Zürich, 8032 Switzerland

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Swiss Finance Institute

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Pawel Polak (Contact Author)

Stony brook university-department of applied mathematics and statistics ( email ).

Stony Brook University Stony Brook, NY 11794 United States

Institute for Advanced Computational Science ( email )

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HOME PAGE: http://https://sites.google.com/view/pawelpolak/

University of Zurich, Department of Banking and Finance ( email )

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HOME PAGE: http://www.bf.uzh.ch/

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Resolving a Candidate Dual Active Galactic Nucleus with ∼100 pc Separation in MCG-03-34-64

Anna Trindade Falcão 1 , T. J. Turner 2 , S. B. Kraemer 3 , J. Reeves 3,4 , V. Braito 3,4,5 , H. R. Schmitt 6 , and L. Feuillet 3

Published 2024 September 9 • © 2024. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society. The Astrophysical Journal , Volume 972 , Number 2 Citation Anna Trindade Falcão et al 2024 ApJ 972 185 DOI 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6b91

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Author affiliations.

1 Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden St., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

2 Eureka Scientific, Inc., 2452 Delmer St., Suite 100, Oakland, CA 94602, USA

3 Institute for Astrophysics and Computational Sciences, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064, USA

4 INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Bianchi 46, 23807, Merate (LC), Italy

5 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Trento, Via Sommarive 14, Trento 38123, Italy

6 Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA

Anna Trindade Falcão https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8112-3464

T. J. Turner https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2971-1722

S. B. Kraemer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4073-8977

J. Reeves https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3221-6765

V. Braito https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2629-4989

H. R. Schmitt https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2450-3246

L. Feuillet https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5718-2402

• Received 2024 May 24
• Revised 2024 July 20
• Accepted 2024 August 4
• Published 2024 September 9

AGN host galaxies ; Seyfert galaxies ; High energy astrophysics

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We report the serendipitous multiwavelength discovery of a candidate dual black hole system with a separation of ∼100 pc, in the gas-rich luminous infrared galaxy MCG-03-34-64 ( z = 0.016). Hubble Space Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys observations show three distinct optical centroids in the [O iii ] narrow-band and F814W images. Subsequent analysis of Chandra/ACIS data shows two spatially resolved peaks of equal intensity in the neutral Fe K α (6.2–6.6 keV) band, while high-resolution radio continuum observations with the Very Large Array at 8.46 GHz (3.6 cm band) show two spatially coincident radio peaks. Fast shocks as the ionizing source seem unlikely, given the energies required for the production of Fe K α . If confirmed, the separation of ∼100 pc would represent the closest dual active galactic nuclei reported to date with spatially resolved, multiwavelength observations.

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1. Introduction

The masses of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) in active galactic nuclei (AGNs) correlate with the global properties of their host galaxies' stellar components, such as luminosity, mass, and velocity dispersion, extending over kiloparsec scales (e.g., Kormendy & Ho 2013 ). This correlation highlights the need to understand the mechanisms driving SMBH growth.

Both galactic evolutionary models and observations suggest that a significant fraction of AGNs, particularly those at the center of large-scale structures, undergo major mergers (e.g., De Lucia & Blaizot 2007 ; Hopkins et al. 2008 ; Ginolfi et al. 2017 ; Castignani et al. 2020 ). Hydrodynamical simulations further demonstrate that major mergers induce gas inflows toward galactic centers, potentially triggering both star formation and accretion onto central SMBHs (Mayer et al. 2007 ). However, the overall impact of these events on SMBH growth throughout cosmic time remains poorly constrained.

SMBH pairs, often manifested as dual AGNs, provide distinctive evidence for merger-fueled SMBH growth (e.g., Wassenhove et al. 2012 ). Numerous dual AGN candidates have been identified using various techniques, including optical spectroscopy with emission line ratios (e.g., Liu et al. 2011 ), hard X-ray emission (e.g., Koss et al. 2011 ), and double-peaked narrow emission lines (e.g., Smith et al. 2010 ; Koss et al. 2023 ). Nonetheless, these methods have limitations, and multiwavelength follow-up observations have revealed a substantial number of false positives (e.g., Fu et al. 2011b ).

The advent of gravitational-wave astronomy, with the potential for detection through pulsar timing arrays (e.g., Verbiest et al. 2016 ), has heightened the importance of understanding the formation timescales of binary systems. Studying kiloparsec and subkiloparsec dual AGNs offers a unique window into the final stages of SMBH binary coalescence, a crucial process in gravitational wave astronomy.

Dual AGNs separated by kiloparsec or subkiloparsec scales are inherently more challenging to detect and investigate than wider-separation systems (e.g., >3 kpc). This difficulty arises from increased obscuration in late-stage mergers (e.g., Koss et al. 2016 ; Ricci et al. 2021 ; De Rosa et al. 2022 ), limitations in telescope spatial resolution (particularly at subkiloparsec scales), the scarcity of detected radio-bright dual systems (Burke-Spolaor 2011 ), and the limitations of optical selection using double-peaked narrow emission lines (prone to false positives; see Fu et al. 2011a ). Existing observations of dual AGNs tentatively suggest that AGN triggering becomes more prevalent in advanced mergers with stellar bulge separations <10 kpc (e.g., Koss et al. 2010 ; Fu et al. 2018 ; Stemo et al. 2021 ), aligning with simulations of SMBH accretion and evolution in such mergers (e.g., Blecha et al. 2018 ). Therefore, studying nearby galaxies hosting dual AGNs separated at subkiloparsec scales is crucial for advancing our understanding of the late stages of galaxy mergers, the triggering and fueling of AGN activity, and the dynamics of SMBH pairs (Steinborn et al. 2016 ). These close-separation systems provide a unique window into the processes leading to the eventual coalescence of SMBHs, which is a major source of gravitational waves, and plays a fundamental role in the growth of SMBHs and their host galaxies (Dotti et al. 2012 ; Kharb et al. 2017 ).

While several dual AGN candidates have been proposed at scales of hundreds of parsecs, often supported by single-wave band observations, these have frequently been challenged by subsequent studies. Notable examples include the nearby Seyfert NGC 3393 (Fabbiano et al. 2011 ), SDSS J101022.95 + 141300.9 (Goulding et al. 2019 ), and a third active nucleus in NGC 6240 (Kollatschny et al. 2020 ), later disputed in other works (Koss et al. 2015 ; Veres et al. 2021 ; Treister et al. 2020 ).

In this study, we present the serendipitous discovery of a candidate dual AGN system in MCG-03-34-64 (IRAS 13197-1627), a nearby early-type infrared luminous galaxy at z = 0.01654 (∼78 Mpc, from NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database). 7 This galaxy is identified as one of the hardest X-ray sources in the local Universe (Tatum et al. 2016 ). Earlier X-ray observations with ASCA, XMM-Newton, and BeppoSAX (Dadina & Cappi 2004 ; Miniutti et al. 2007 ) revealed an extremely hard and complex source spectrum, attributed to heavy absorption from a multilayered and clumpy medium. MCG-03-34-64 also shows extended radio emission (∼300 pc), roughly aligned with the major axis of the host galaxy (Schmitt et al. 2001 ), and ∼2'' extent in mid-infrared aligned in the same direction as the radio structure (Hönig et al. 2010 ).

We have obtained Hubble Space Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) imaging of MCG-03-34-64 in 2022 June (P.I.: Turner, proposal ID: 16847), and 50 ks of Chandra/ACIS-S observations in 2023 April (obs ids 25253, 27802, and 27803, P.I.: Turner). This paper presents the results of the analysis of these new data sets, combined with existing Very Large Array (VLA) radio, and Hubble Space Telescope (HST) optical imaging of the source. Throughout this paper, we adopt Ω m = 0.3, Ω Λ = 0.7, and H 0 = 70 km s −1 Mpc −1 , and a scale of 340 pc arcsec −1 , based on the redshift at the galaxy's distance.

2. Multiwavelength Observations and Analysis

Table 1 lists all observations used in this paper, including instruments, filters, observation dates, obs ids, and exposure times. Details on the reduction of new HST/ACS and Chandra/ACIS-S observations are provided in Sections 2.1 and 2.2 , respectively. For reduction and analysis of archival HST F814W, VLA 8.46 GHz imaging, and Suzaku and XMM-Newton spectroscopy, see Section 2.3 . All the HST data used in this paper can be found in MAST at doi: 10.17909/53rj-fw34 .

Table 1.  Multiwavelength Observations of MCG-03-34-64

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2.1. Hubble Space Telescope Imaging

HST/ACS observations of MCG-03-34-64 were obtained using the linear ramp filter FR505N (narrow-band [O iii ]) centered at 5089.6 Å, to characterize the morphology of the emission-line gas, while a continuum medium band image was obtained using FR647M, centered at 5590 Å. These filters have bandwidths of 2% and 9%, respectively. Standard HST pipeline procedures were employed for data reduction. The narrow-band and continuum images were acquired sequentially and did not require realignment. Flux calibration was performed using information available on the headers.

2.2. Chandra Imaging and Spectroscopy.

Subpixel imaging binning was employed to effectively oversample the Chandra point-spread function (PSF) and overcome the limitations of the ACIS instrumental pixel size. This method has been extensively used and validated in previous studies examining the subkiloparsec regions around nearby and obscured AGNs (e.g., Maksym et al. 2017 ; Fabbiano et al. 2018a ; Ma et al. 2021 ; Trindade Falcão 2023 ), demonstrating excellent agreement between reconstructed ACIS-S features and those imaged with higher spatial resolution instruments such as HST and VLA (e.g., Wang et al. 2011b ; Paggi et al. 2012 ; Maksym et al. 2019 ; Fabbiano et al. 2018b ). The Chandra PSF was simulated using ChaRT 9 and MARX . 10 This work uses a final Chandra scale of one-eighth of the native ACIS pixel.

2.3. Archival Radio/Optical/X-Ray Observations

In addition to the new Chandra and HST data sets, we analyze archival optical, radio, and X-ray observations of MCG-03-34-64, as listed in Table 1 . These data include 8.46 GHz radio imaging with VLA, optical continuum imaging with HST/ACS F814W, and X-ray spectra from Suzaku and XMM-Newton.

There are four additional archival Chandra observations with MCG-03-34-64 in the field of view (obs ids 27267, 27786, 7373, and 23690). However, three of these observations are not usable due to the galaxy being located at the very edge of the field (observations were optimized for the companion galaxy). The fourth available Chandra observation consists of a 7 ks snapshot (used in Miniutti et al. 2007 ), which has insufficient counts for meaningful imaging analysis.

3.1. Imaging Analysis

3.1.1. hubble space telescope imaging.

The [O iii ] narrow-line region (NLR) in MCG-03-34-64 has a highly unusual morphology, featuring three distinct, and compact emission regions, as shown in Figure 1 . The NLR extends ∼2.3 kpc along the NE–SW direction. In the perpendicular direction (NW–SE), we observe three diffraction spikes characteristic of point sources, while one diffraction spike is observed along the NE–SW cone. These features suggest high concentrations of [O iii ] gas within a relatively small region, a rare occurrence in the local Universe (Fischer et al. 2018 ).

Figure 1.  HST [O iii ] and F814W images of the central region of MCG-03-34-64. Note the prominent diffraction spikes present in the [O iii ] image.

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To examine the overall structure of the NLR, we model the [O iii ] light distribution with GALFIT (Peng et al. 2002 , 2010 ). The modeling was performed with generic Sérsic profiles, and we allow all parameters to freely vary during the fitting process. The background level and standard deviation were determined from blank regions within the image's field of view.

The best-fit GALFIT model consists of four Sérsic components, one for each of the three peaks visible in the [O iii ] surface plot in the leftmost panel of Figure 2 , and an additional larger component to take into account the underlying fainter, more extended emission. In the second panel, we show a zoomed-in image of the [O iii ] emission, and mark the position of each Sérsic component corresponding to a strong peak of [O iii ] emission as green circles. The third panel of Figure 2 shows the best-fit GALFIT model, while the fourth panel shows the residual images from this best-fit model, with the different model components subtracted from the data.

Figure 2.  First panel: surface plot of the [O iii ] flux in the HST/ACS image where three distinct sources are visible. Second panel: HST/ACS [O iii ] image showing the presence of three closely separated emission peaks. We mark the position of each Sérsic component for the emission peaks as green circles. Third panel: best-fit GALFIT model, using four Sérsic components. Fourth panel: residual image after subtraction of the best-fit GALFIT model.

Table 2 lists the best-fit model parameters. The strong [O iii ] peaks of emission are fit with Sérsic components with indices 0.41 ≤ n ≤ 0.51, indicating that they are similar to Gaussians ( n = 0.5), but in two cases show a slightly more centrally concentrated distribution. Given that these components have effective radii ∼2–3 times that of an unresolved source, we opted to not include a PSF component in the fitting model, since it is not expected to significantly change the results.

Given the unique morphology of the optical emission observed in MCG-03-34-64 with HST, we examine other available multiwavelength observations (Table 1 ) to obtain a more comprehensive picture of this inner region.

3.1.2. Chandra Imaging

Figure 3 shows the inner ∼200 pc region of MCG-03-34-64, as observed with Chandra/ACIS in different energy bands. The images are binned at one-eighth of the native pixel to use the full-resolution of the instrument in the high-count inner region, and processed with 1 kernel Gaussian smoothing.

Figure 3.  Chandra/ACIS-S merged data set showing the inner 200 pc region of MCG-03-34-64 in different bands (one-eighth subpixel, and 1 kernel Gaussian smoothing). First panel: soft (0.3–3 keV) X-ray image. Second panel: 3–5 keV hard continuum image. Third panel: Fe K α (6.2–6.6 keV) Chandra image. We show the location of the two Fe K α centroids as blue circles. Fourth panel: 6–7 keV hard band Chandra image.

We measure nearly equal X-ray luminosities in the narrow 6.2–6.6 keV band from the Chandra image for both Fe K α peaks, L (6.2−6.6 keV) ∼ 3.2 ± 0.6 × 10 40 erg s −1 , for D ∼ 78 Mpc (e.g., de Grijp et al. 1992 ; Table 3 ).

Table 3.  Chandra/ACIS-S Merged Data Set—Astrometry, Fluxes, and Luminosities of the Individual Fe K α Regions

Note. The luminosities are calculated for D = 78 Mpc.

To address concerns that the dual morphology might be a spurious detection due to smoothing on scales smaller than the Chandra PSF, we examine the individual Chandra observations (prior to merging) listed in Table 1 , in the Fe K α band (Figure 4 ). These images are binned at one-eighth of the native pixel and smoothed with a 1 kernel Gaussian. As shown, the dual morphology of the Fe K α band is indeed observed in all individual observations, prior to merging, confirming the robustness of the detection. The differences in surface brightness between the individual Chandra exposures seen in Figure 4 for the individual nuclei are most likely due to statistical noise.

3.1.3. VLA Imaging

The morphology of the 8.46 GHz radio continuum emission in MCG-03-34-64 is also analyzed, and shown in Figure 5 . The positions of the two radio centroids identified by Schmitt et al. ( 2001 ) in the inner region are shown as white circles (see their Table 2). The 8.46 GHz emission starts as a linear structure at the position of the northern radio centroid, extending ∼100 pc southwestward to the central radio peak, and then bending southward in the direction of the southern [O iii ] centroid (Figure 5 ). Table 4 lists the positions and fluxes of the individual radio components, as measured in Schmitt et al. ( 2001 ). The separation between the two centroids is 116 ± 14 pc.

Figure 5.  VLA-A 8.46 GHz (3.6 cm) radio continuum image of MCG-03-34-64. White circles mark the position of the two radio peaks, and the [O iii ] centroids are shown in green. The image is shown in log scale.

Table 4.  VLA-A 3.6 cm Radio Continuum Image Decomposition—Position and Fluxes of Individual Components

Note. From Schmitt et al. ( 2001 ).

3.1.4. Astrometry Registration

We initially apply CIAO wavdetect 15 to the merged 0.3–7 keV Chandra image with a >5 σ detection threshold, detecting two faint sources near the edge of the chip array (via comparison with the Vizier source catalog). However, given their faintness, these are not suitable to use as a basis for astrometry correction.

We then create Chandra images in the narrow Fe K α band (6.2–6.6 keV), known to be dominated by nuclear emission in obscured sources (Fabbiano & Elvis 2024 ). Assuming that the radio emission in AGNs also originates from the innermost regions around the SMBH, we correct Chandra's absolute astrometry by aligning the emission peaks seen in the Fe K α band with those in the 8.46 GHz radio image. This alignment method has been used in similar studies, such as in Mrk 78 (Fornasini et al. 2022 ).

We apply a total shift of [Δx, Δy] = [0.1, 0.7] pixels to the Chandra/ACIS data, well within the absolute astrometry accuracy of the telescope. 16 Comparison with available HST observations confirms the accuracy of VLA's astrometry.

3.2. Spectroscopic Analysis

The overall spectral profile observed in the Chandra data is consistent across the earlier NuSTAR and XMM-Newton observations. All three spectra show an absorption feature at 6.8 keV, likely arising from Fe XXV absorption, and suggesting an outflow with v ∼ 5000 km s −1 , as noted in Miniutti et al. ( 2007 ). Below 3 keV, the soft X-ray emission is dominated by photoionized and collisionally ionized emission lines, from Ne, O, and Fe L ions (Miniutti et al. 2007 ).

3.2.1. XMM-Newton and NuSTAR Spectral Fitting

We proceed to model the X-ray spectrum of MCG-03-34-64 with MYTorus (Murphy & Yaqoob 2009 ), a physically motivated model built to describe the interaction of the emission from an X-ray point-source with a surrounding, and homogeneous torus of cold neutral material.

We fit the joint XMM+NuSTAR X-ray spectrum with a source model of the form:

A × TBabs × [ xstar × MYTZ × zpowerlw +( C × ( MYTS + MYTL × gsmooth )+ zpowerlaw _ soft + soft _ emiss )], where TBabs describes the absorption of emission by the Galactic column density, xstar is the photoionized absorber described previously in Miniutti et al. ( 2007 ), [ MYTZ × zpowerlw] describes the intrinsic continuum in transmission absorbed by torus, MYTS is the scattered (reflected) toroidal component off Compton-thick matter, MYTL is the associated Fe/Ni K α /K β line emission, and gsmooth accounts for some Gaussian broadening of the MYTorus line emission, where the upper limit on the line width is σ < 65 eV. The soft X-ray components are zpowerlaw _ soft , which is an unabsorbed scattered power-law component, and soft _ emiss , which is the sum of the photo and collisionally ionized emission components described by Miniutti et al. ( 2007 ). A is the cross normalization factor between NuSTAR and XMM ( A = 1.20 ± 0.05) and C is the offset between reflected/line components and intrinsic continuum components ( C is frozen at 1). The results of the fitting are shown in Figure 6 (center and right panels).

Given the quality and resolution of the X-ray observations used in this work, the spectra and fitting models employed in our analysis account for emission within the entire inner region of MCG-03-34-64, and cannot be performed separately for the individual Fe K α peaks uncovered in the Chandra imaging data. In this case, the resulting configuration suggested by MYTorus requires one where one is looking along the edge (Compton-thin line of sight) of a very Compton-thick absorber overall, which obscures both Fe K α regions.

We also note that the difference observed between the summed Fe K α luminosities derived from the Chandra imaging, ∼6.4 × 10 40 erg s −1 , and the total Fe K α luminosity yielded by the spectral fitting with MYTorus , L (6.2−6.6 keV) = 1.0 × 10 41 erg s −1 , may be attributed to line absorption by the absorber, which in turn implies a higher intrinsic X-ray luminosity, as yielded by the results of the spectral fit.

4. Discussion

The results presented in Section 3 reveal puzzling properties of the emission in MCG-03-34-64. Our imaging analysis identified three [O iii ]-emitting regions in the HST/ACS data, separated by 76 ± 8 and 79 ± 8 pc (Table 2 , Figure 2 ). In X-rays with Chandra/ACIS, two spatially resolved peaks of emission are observed in the narrow 6.2–6.6 keV Fe K α band, separated by 125 ± 21 pc (Table 3 , Figure 3 ). In the radio with VLA-A, Schmitt et al. ( 2001 ) previously identified two distinct radio cores in the 8.46 GHz continuum, separated by 116 ± 14 pc (Table 4 , Figure 5 ).

Figure 7 shows the Chandra/ACIS Fe K α image and the position of these multiwavelength centroids. The image is binned at one-eighth of the native ACIS-S pixel and smoothed with 1 kernel Gaussian.

Figure 7.  Chandra/ACIS-S merged Fe K (6.2–6.6 keV) image of MCG-03-34-64 (one-eighth subpixel, and smoothed with 1 kernel Gaussian). Optical centroids from HST/ACS are shown in red, VLA-A 8.46 GHz centroids in white, and Chandra/ACIS Fe K centroids in blue. The circle sizes reflect uncertainties in the position of the centroids.

4.1. Bolometric Luminosity

Table 5.  Joint XMM and NuSTAR Spectral Fitting Results from MYTorus

Notes. We use a correction factor k = 30 (Vasudevan & Fabian 2007 ) to obtain the integrated bolometric luminosity in X-rays.

4.1.1. HST F814W Continuum Fluxes

Our results reveal that the integrated observed fluxes are ≤3% of the integrated intrinsic flux in the band (Table 6 ), with the largest fraction originating from the central region. These fractions are consistent with scattered, hidden continuum (e.g., Pier et al. 1994 ), but could also include contributions from emission lines (e.g., Kraemer & Crenshaw 2000 ) and recombination continuum (Osterbrock & Robertis 1985 ). Therefore, it is unlikely that we will detect AGN continuum emission directly in the optical, and we cannot determine which of these regions harbors the AGN, given that all three regions are consistent with scatter continua from an active nucleus (but see below).

Table 6.  [O iii ] Luminosities Calculated from the Measured [O iii ] Fluxes from Table 2 , and Considering a Distance of D = 78 Mpc

Note We use a correction factor c = 454 (Lamastra et al. 2009 ) to calculate the bolometric luminosity in each [O iii ] region. We also show the measured F814W fluxes for each emitting region.

4.2. Multiwavelength Emission Centroids

The high fluxes and luminosities found in Section 3 for individual emission regions in the optical, X-ray, and radio bands support the presence of an AGN in this system. However, pinpointing the AGN's location is more challenging. We discuss possible interpretations for the system's configuration, based on our results and the limitations of the data.

4.2.1. Single AGN+Shocked Interstellar Medium

One interpretation is that the active nucleus is located at the position of the northern centroids ([O iii ], Fe K α , and radio; see Figure 7 ), based on the fluxes of individual components (Tables 2 , 3 , and 4 ). In this single AGN scenario, the remaining emission centroids (central Fe K α , [O iii ] and radio centroids, and southern [O iii ]) may arise from the interaction between the AGN and the interstellar medium (ISM). This would manifest as a mix of photoionized and collisionally ionized (shocked) gas from an extended NLR, similar to NGC 3393 (e.g., Maksym et al. 2016 ). Such an interpretation is consistent with previous spectral fitting results for this galaxy, which indicate a mix of photoionized and shock-ionized gas in the soft X-ray emission (Miniutti et al. 2007 ). Similarly, it is possible that the AGN in this system is located at the position of the central [O iii ], Fe K α , and radio peaks, while the remaining multiwavelength centroids may be attributed to AGN–ISM shock emission.

4.2.2. Dual AGN+Shocked ISM

Following the discussion in Section 4.2.1 , the high Fe K α luminosities (Table 3 ), and the high energies required for the production of such line emission suggest that both Fe K α regions could be powered by an active SMBH. In this scenario, the northern emission centroids would pinpoint the location of one AGN, while the central emission centroids (radio, Fe K α , and optical) may be associated with a second active SMBH in this system (given the high fluxes found for the central optical region in the F814W continuum band; Table 6 ). The distances measured between the different centroids attributed to each AGN are consistent across different wave bands (Table 7 ), supporting the dual AGN scenario.

Table 7.  Distances between Multiwavelength Centroids Found in This Work: HST/ACS, VLA-A, and Chandra/ACIS-S (Fe K α )

In this scenario, the southern [O iii ] region may arise from collisionally ionized emission in the ISM. Shock emission from jet–ISM interaction at the southern optical centroid location is supported by (1) the morphology of the radio emission at the central radio peak, which is observed to bend southward (Schmitt et al. 2001 ), in the direction of the southern [O iii ] peak (see Figures 5 and 3 , and Section 3.1.3 ); and (2) the morphology of the Chandra 0.3–3 keV (soft) emission, which is also observed to bend southward in the direction of the southern [O iii ] centroid (see Figure 3 , and Section 3.1.3 ). The lack of a corresponding southern radio or hard X-ray counterpart is consistent with the hypothesis that the northern and central [O iii ] centroids are powered by individual AGNs.

The dual AGN scenario is strengthened by the consistent values between the estimated bolometric luminosities derived from [O iii ] and X-rays (Tables 5 and 6 ), and the detection of nearly equal Fe K α emission peaks in the Chandra image, a powerful tool for identifying and confirming dual AGN systems (De Rosa et al. 2022 ). In the 3–5 keV Chandra image (Figure 3 ), the northern nucleus appears brighter than the central nucleus, although some extended emission is observed toward the central nucleus in this band. The column densities in the transmission of the two nuclei may not be the same, i.e., the AGN located at the central Fe K α region could have a higher absorbing column and appear fainter at lower energies. A higher contribution from the photoionized+thermal extended soft X-ray gas is expected at these lower energies. Given the resolution of the analyzed X-ray data, performing a separate spectral analysis of each individual Fe K α region is currently impractical.

5. Summary and Conclusions

We analyze new HST/ACS and Chandra/ACIS observations of the nearby Seyfert galaxy MCG-03-34-64, along with archival HST/ACS, XMM-Newton/Epic-pn, NuSTAR, and VLA-A data sets. Our analysis reveals the following:

In X-rays with Chandra: Two spatially resolved emission centroids are detected in the 6.2–6.6 keV Fe K α image, separated by 125 ± 21 pc. These peaks are evident in individual exposures and the merged data set. The northern and central Fe K α regions have 36 ± 6 and 37 ± 6 counts in the narrow 6.2–6.6 keV band, respectively, corresponding to ≥6 σ detections, and nearly equal Fe K α luminosities, L (6.2−6.6 keV) ∼ 3.2 ± 0.6 × 10 40 erg s −1 .

In the radio with VLA: Two emission regions are observed in the 3.6 cm VLA continuum image (Schmitt et al. 2001 ), spatially colocated with the northern and central Fe K α and [O iii ] regions.

We propose two possible physical interpretations of our results, and discuss these in the context of our analysis:

1. The "single AGN+shocked ISM" scenario, which proposes the existence of a single active nucleus in the system, while the remaining multiwavelength centroids may be attributed to the interaction of the ISM with the radio jet in the NLR.

This scenario is strengthened by:

a. Previous X-ray studies on this source, which find evidence for a mix of collisionally and photoionized X-ray gas in the NLR (Miniutti et al. 2007 ).

This scenario is challenged by:

b. The high Fe K α luminosities derived for individual regions and the energies required for the production of such line emission.

2. The "dual AGN+shocked ISM" scenario, which proposes the existence of a dual SMBH pair in this system separated by just 125 ± 21 pc.

a. The detection of two spatially resolved Fe K α regions in the Chandra imaging data, with high individual luminosities (Table 3 ).

b. The detection of three very bright and compact (<60 pc diameter) [O iii ]-emitting regions in the HST imaging data, and the respective individual bolometric luminosities (Table 6 ).

c. The detection of spatially coincident Fe K α , radio, and [O iii ] centroids at the northern and central regions. This is the first time spatially resolved, multiwavelength emission centroids in X-rays, radio, and optical are detected colocated in a nearby candidate dual AGN. For comparison, the recent study of Koss et al. ( 2023 ), which identified the presence of a dual AGN system separated by ∼230 pc in UGC 4211, detected colocated optical (HST F814W, MUSE AO [O iii ], and H α ), NIR (Keck J and K'), and submillimeter (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array continuum at ∼230 GHz) centroids at the position of the two nuclei, but with no confirmation from X-rays or radio observations.

In summary, although we cannot definitively confirm or exclude the physical scenarios presented here, identification of the two nuclei in a deeper Chandra exposure would help to confirm a possible dual black hole system in this galaxy. Analysis of gas kinematics in the nuclear region of MCG-03-34-64 is crucial to determine the nature of the observed structures. Kinematic information obtained with HST/STIS long-slit spectroscopy could reveal disturbed kinematics expected from either the individual outflows of two SMBHs or the highly disturbed kinematics resulting from the merger environment. This information cannot be obtained from the archival X-Shooter data and requires the resolution of HST to probe the ∼100 pc region of interest.

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Line of Inquiry: Milena Almagro on Public Housing Demolition and Urban Inequality

• August 15, 2024
• CBR - Inequality
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Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, the United States’ HOPE VI program provided grants to tear down distressed public housing. The program aimed to provide better homes for public-housing residents and improve the neighborhoods surrounding these developments. But when Chicago Booth’s Milena Almagro  and her coauthors looked into the direct and indirect effects of these demolitions in Chicago, they found that the razing of public housing also led to gentrification and increased inequality.

Video Transcript

(calm music)

The HOPE VI program was a program that was funded by the federal government and it was run by the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the HUD. And the intention of the program was to redevelop disadvantaged areas, to invest in these areas, especially through the development of mixed-income housing after the demolition of public housing.

So in this project, we are trying to think about the effect of place-based policies. Place-based policies is when governments . . . either the local government or the federal government is putting money into some areas, such as the HOPE VI program, and trying to restimulate those distressed areas. And the cost of these programs are not negligible. It is estimated that on an annual basis, the federal government and local governments spend roughly $100 billion to stimulate redevelopment in these disadvantaged areas.

The first question that we need to ask is: Who are the winners and losers of these local investments, of these place-based policies? And we still don’t have a good answer for that.

So for this project, we have three sources of data. The first one is census data. And what we’re gonna do is we’re going to look at the census tracts for the city of Chicago—for Cook County actually, which is where the city of Chicago is. And we’re gonna follow how tracts are changing from 1990 until 2010. The second source of data is the location of public-housing demolitions, the date of these demolitions, and the number of units that were demolished.

And the last data set that we are going to use is a sample of 5,000 individuals who were living in public housing and faced this demolition. Some of them were forced to be displaced somewhere else because the unit in which they were living was demolished. Some of them decided to voluntarily move somewhere else. So we are tracking where these people are living one year after these demolitions happen.

So in particular for the city of Chicago, there were roughly 40,000 public-housing units. And with the money that the CHA got from this HOPE VI program, 23,000 units were demolished. That accounts for 1 percent of the housing stock in the city of Chicago. Overall, these demolitions displaced 15,000 families that were predominantly African American, typically single mom, and their annual income was roughly $6,000 per year. And this $6,000 was not actually labor income. This was social benefits, like government assistance, things such as SNAP or other forms of social assistance.

So the first step that we take in our paper to understand what the effects are of public-housing demolition is to start looking at what’s happening to the areas that are experiencing these demolitions. These areas are becoming less African American, more white. The level of the Hispanic population seems to be constant. We see that income in these areas, the average income of the residents is going up. And we also see that rents and house values are going up in response to these demolitions.

And for the people who were living in public housing, for the households that we observed living in public housing at the beginning of the ‘90s, what we saw is that these people look very different from the rest of the population. Even when we compare them to groups that are similar in principle, such as low-income African Americans, these people are going to drastically different tracts. And what we see from our data is that they are moving into places that are poorer, are cheaper, have a higher share of African American families, and also have more presence of public housing back in 1999.

For the HOPE VI program in the city of Chicago, the program was not only focused on demolishing public-housing units. What they also wanted to do is to have some form of redevelopment in the areas with public-housing projects. Why was that? Because there was a lot of opposition from the communities of people living in public housing against these demolitions, spurred or motivated by the fact that these demolitions were going to destroy their communities. So these redevelopments were so important for these people because this was a promise that was given to them to actually preserve those communities that they were attached to.

When we go into the data and we see what’s happening to the areas that experienced demolitions, we see that 40 percent of the lots that had public housing back in 1990 and were demolished, 40 percent of them remain completely vacant. And you can actually Google and search for the name of some of these projects back in the day and you would see that there is an empty lot with grass and everything. And this was kind of surprising to us because some of the promises that were made as part of the program were never fully materialized.

What our analysis reveals is that even though public-housing demolitions were meant to target very specific areas—and just to give you some context, only 5 percent of the tracts experienced some form of public-housing demolition—we do see effects at the city level. So locally, the literature found that public-housing demolitions led to a rent increase from 9 percent to 20 percent. In our analysis, we see a price increase of 13 percent, a house price increase of 13 percent, but this aggregates up to 2.4 percent at the city level. So the city of Chicago is becoming 2.4 percent more expensive when it comes to housing prices.

Our analysis also reveals that everybody dislikes living in places that have public housing. So when you put the two things together, first you have destruction of public housing. And in principle, people are gonna be better off by this because they dislike public housing. But second, as a response to that, we also face higher housing prices.

The next question that we wanted to answer is how you put the two things together in order to measure the final welfare or the changes in well-being of the residents of the city of Chicago. And what we found is that the average resident in the city of Chicago is better off by 1 percent. So the well-being, your well-being is better, is increasing by 1 percent, but there is a huge gap. This is very unevenly distributed across demographic groups.

We see that high-income, non-Hispanic white families are gaining roughly $120 per year in terms of rental prices. So they’re willing to pay like $120 more per year to live in a city, in the city of Chicago postdemolition. But this is not the case for low-income African Americans. African Americans are losing by $75 per year. So you see a welfare gap between high-income whites and low-income African Americans of $200 per year.

Now, when we go into public-housing residents, what we see is that these people are losing a lot. This cost we estimated to be of the order of $15,000. As part of the policy, what the CHA did was to give these people rental vouchers, which is just a discount on the rent. And what we find in our analysis is that even after these discounts, these people are losing by $1,200 per year.

What we wanted to do is to start thinking about policy that could help mitigate this increase in the inequality gap that we see after demolitions. And what we find is that if you only redevelop 20 percent of the units that were demolished, you can actually make everybody better off. There’s not gonna be any loser from public-housing demolitions if this is accompanied by a redevelopment of 20 percent of those demolished units. Why is that? Because remember that I told you that prices, housing prices were going up by 2.4 percent. So you can curve that increase in prices just by the construction of more housing.

Something that is even more interesting is that if you redevelop . . . if you’re willing to redevelop 50 percent of these units that were demolished, it’s not only that everybody is gonna be better off, but actually the inequality gap completely closes off. So there’s not gonna be any disparity between high-income whites and low-income African Americans.

When policymakers think about place-based policies, they should not only think about the local effects of these place-based policies, and not only the direct effects of these place-based policies, we should also think about what economists call equilibrium effects, how housing prices are responding to these interventions and how you should create a framework to evaluate everything that is happening together, at the same time.

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