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Descriptive Essay: The Industrial Revolution and its Effects

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great age throughout the world. It represented major change from 1760 to the period 1820-1840. The movement originated in Great Britain and affected everything from industrial manufacturing processes to the daily life of the average citizen. I will discuss the Industrial Revolution and the effects it had on the world as a whole.

The primary industry of the time was the textiles industry. It had the most employees, output value, and invested capital. It was the first to take on new modern production methods. The transition to machine power drastically increased productivity and efficiency. This extended to iron production and chemical production.

It started in Great Britain and soon expanded into Western Europe and to the United States. The actual effects of the revolution on different sections of society differed. They manifested themselves at different times. The ‘trickle down’ effect whereby the benefits of the revolution helped the lower classes didn’t happen until towards the 1830s and 1840s. Initially, machines like the Watt Steam Engine and the Spinning Jenny only benefited the rich industrialists.

The effects on the general population, when they did come, were major. Prior to the revolution, most cotton spinning was done with a wheel in the home. These advances allowed families to increase their productivity and output. It gave them more disposable income and enabled them to facilitate the growth of a larger consumer goods market. The lower classes were able to spend. For the first time in history, the masses had a sustained growth in living standards.

Social historians noted the change in where people lived. Industrialists wanted more workers and the new technology largely confined itself to large factories in the cities. Thousands of people who lived in the countryside migrated to the cities permanently. It led to the growth of cities across the world, including London, Manchester, and Boston. The permanent shift from rural living to city living has endured to the present day.

Trade between nations increased as they often had massive surpluses of consumer goods they couldn’t sell in the domestic market. The rate of trade increased and made nations like Great Britain and the United States richer than ever before. Naturally, this translated to military power and the ability to sustain worldwide trade networks and colonies.

On the other hand, the Industrial Revolution and migration led to the mass exploitation of workers and slums. To counter this, workers formed trade unions. They fought back against employers to win rights for themselves and their families. The formation of trade unions and the collective unity of workers across industries are still existent today. It was the first time workers could make demands of their employers. It enfranchised them and gave them rights to upset the status quo and force employers to view their workers as human beings like them.

Overall, the Industrial Revolution was one of the single biggest events in human history. It launched the modern age and drove industrial technology forward at a faster rate than ever before. Even contemporary economics experts failed to predict the extent of the revolution and its effects on world history. It shows why the Industrial Revolution played such a vital role in the building of the United States of today.

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7 Negative Effects of the Industrial Revolution

By: Patrick J. Kiger

Updated: August 9, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2021

The Industrial Revolution , which began roughly in the second half of the 1700s and stretched into the early 1800s, was a period of enormous change in Europe and America. The invention of new technologies, from mechanized looms for weaving cloth and the steam-powered locomotive to improvements in iron smelting, transformed what had been largely rural societies of farmers and craftsmen who made goods by hand. Many people moved from the countryside into fast-growing cities, where they worked in factories filled with machinery.

While the Industrial Revolution created economic growth and offered new opportunities, that progress came with significant downsides, from damage to the environment and health and safety hazards to squalid living conditions for workers and their families. Historians say that many of these problems persisted and grew in the Second Industrial Revolution , another period of rapid change that began in the late 1800s.

Here are a few of the most significant negative effects of the Industrial Revolution.

1. Horrible Living Conditions for Workers

As cities grew during the Industrial Revolution, there wasn’t enough housing for all the new inhabitants, who were jammed into squalid inner-city neighborhoods as more affluent residents fled to the suburbs. In the 1830s, Dr. William Henry Duncan, a government health official in Liverpool, England, surveyed living conditions and found that a third of the city’s population lived in cellars of houses, which had earthen floors and no ventilation or sanitation. As many as 16 people were living in a single room and sharing a single privy. The lack of clean water and gutters overflowing with sewage from basement cesspits made workers and their families vulnerable to infectious diseases such as cholera.

2. Poor Nutrition

In his 1832 study entitled “Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Classes Employed in the Cotton Manufacture in Manchester , ” physician and social reformer James Phillips Kay described the meager diet of the British industrial city’s lowly-paid laborers, who subsisted on a breakfast of tea or coffee with a little bread, and a midday meal that typically consisted of boiled potatoes, melted lard and butter, sometimes with a few pieces of fried fatty bacon mixed in. After finishing work, laborers might have some more tea, “often mingled with spirits” and a little bread, or else oatmeal and potatoes again. As a result of malnutrition, Kay wrote, workers frequently suffered from problems with their stomachs and bowels, lost weight, and had skin that was “pale, leaden-colored, or of the yellow hue.”

3. A Stressful, Unsatisfying Lifestyle

Workers who came from the countryside to the cities had to adjust to a very different rhythm of existence, with little personal autonomy. They had to arrive when the factory whistle blew, or else face being locked out and losing their pay, and even being forced to pay fines.

Once on the job, they couldn’t freely move around or catch a breather if they needed one, since that might necessitate shutting down a machine. Unlike craftsmen in rural towns, their days often consisted of having to perform repetitive tasks, and continual pressure to keep up—“faster pace, more supervision, less pride,” as Peter N. Stearns , a historian at George Mason University, explains. As Stearns describes in his 2013 book The Industrial Revolution in World History , when the workday finally was done, they didn’t have much time or energy left for any sort of recreation. To make matters worse, city officials often banned festivals and other activities that they’d once enjoyed in rural villages. Instead, workers often spent their leisure time at the neighborhood tavern, where alcohol provided an escape from the tedium of their lives.

How the Industrial Revolution Fueled the Growth of Cities

The rise of mills and factories drew an influx of people to cities—and placed new demand on urban infrastructures.

How Early World Fairs Put Industrial Revolution Progress on Display

As England and the United States transformed under the Industrial Revolution, World Fairs served to drum up support for the shift.

How Early Signs of Climate Change Date Back to the Industrial Revolution

Evidence of warming temperatures has been detected as early as the 1830s.

4. Dangerous Workplaces

Without much in the way of safety regulation, factories of the Industrial Revolution could be horrifyingly hazardous. As Peter Capuano details in his 2015 book Changing Hands: Industry, Evolution and the Reconfiguration of the Victorian Body , workers faced the constant risk of losing a hand in the machinery. A contemporary newspaper account described the grisly injuries suffered in 1830 by millworker Daniel Buckley, whose left hand was “caught and lacerated, and his fingers crushed” before his coworkers could stop the equipment. He eventually died as a result of the trauma.

Mines of the era, which supplied the coal needed to keep steam-powered machines running, had terrible accidents as well. David M. Turner’s and Daniel Blackie’s 2018 book Disability in the Industrial Revolution describes a gas explosion at a coal mine that left 36-year-old James Jackson with severe burns on his face, neck, chest, hands and arms, as well as internal injuries. He was in such awful shape that he required opium to cope with the excruciating pain. After six weeks of recuperation, remarkably, a doctor decided that he was fit to return to work, but probably with permanent scars from the ordeal.

5. Child Labor

While children worked prior to the Industrial Revolution, the rapid growth of factors created such a demand that poor youth and orphans were plucked from London’s poorhouses and housed in mill dormitories, while they worked long hours and were deprived of education. Compelled to do dangerous adult jobs, children often suffered horrifying fates.

John Brown’s expose A Memoir of Robert Blincoe, an Orphan Boy, published in 1832, describes a 10-year-old girl named Mary Richards whose apron became caught in the machinery in a textile mill. “In an instant, the poor girl was drawn by an irresistible force and dashed on the floor,” Brown wrote. “She uttered the most heart-rending shrieks.”

University of Alberta history professor Beverly Lemire sees “the exploitation of child labor in a systematic and sustained way, the use of which catalyzed industrial production,” as the worst negative effect of the Industrial Revolution.

6. Discrimination Against Women

The Industrial Revolution helped establish patterns of gender inequality in the workplace that lasted in the eras that followed. Laura L. Frader , a retired professor of history at Northeastern University and author of  The Industrial Revolution: A History in Documents , notes that factory owners often paid women only half of what men got for the same work, based on the false assumption that women didn’t need to support families, and were only working for “pin money” that a husband might give them to pay for non-essential personal items. 

Discrimination against and stereotyping of women workers continued into the second Industrial Revolution . “The myth that women had ‘nimble fingers’ and that they could withstand repetitive, mindless work better than men led to the displacement of men in white collar jobs such as office work, and the assignment of such jobs to women after the 1870s when the typewriter was introduced,” Frader says. 

While office work was less dangerous and better paid, “it locked women into yet another category of ‘women’s work,’ from which it was hard to escape,” Frader explains.

7. Environmental Harm

The Industrial Revolution was powered by burning coal, and big industrial cities began pumping vast quantities of pollution into the atmosphere. London’s concentration of suspended particulate matter rose dramatically between 1760 and 1830, as this chart from Our World In Data illustrates. Pollution in Manchester was so awful that writer Hugh Miller noted “the lurid gloom of the atmosphere that overhangs it,” and described “the innumerable chimneys [that] come in view, tall and dim in the dun haze, each bearing atop its own pennon of darkness.”

Air pollution continued to rise in the 1800s, causing respiratory illness and higher death rates in areas that burned more coal. Worse yet, the burning of fossil fuel pumped carbon into the atmosphere. A study published in 2016 in Nature suggests that climate change driven by human activity began as early as the 1830s.

Despite all these ills, the Industrial Revolution had positive effects, such as creating economic growth and making goods more available. It also helped lead to the rise of a prosperous middle class that grabbed some of the economic power once held by aristocrats, and led to the rise of specialized jobs in industry.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Industrial Revolution — Positive and Negative Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Positive and Negative Effects of The Industrial Revolution

• Categories: Industrial Revolution

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Words: 715 |

Published: Sep 5, 2023

Words: 715 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Positive effects: technological advancements and economic growth, negative effects: harsh working conditions and exploitation, positive effects: urbanization and social mobility, negative effects: environmental degradation, positive effects: advances in education and medicine, negative effects: social inequalities and class struggles.

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19 Biggest Pros and Cons of Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution took place during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was a time when the predominantly rural, agrarian societies in Europe and North America began to become more urban. There was a focus on manufacturing and product development thanks to new technologies and ideas to increase efficiencies, which moved the world away from the use of hand tools in the basement to large factories in the city.

The Industrial Revolution began in the 1700s in Britain, creating a shift to special-purpose equipment that led to the mass production of items. Textiles, iron industries, and many others saw surges of improvement during this era, which contributed to better systems in the banking, communications, and transportation sectors.

When we look at the pros and cons of the Industrial Revolution, we can see that it created an increased variety and volume in the availability of manufactured goods. It is a process that helped to create an improved standard of living for some. This era also created challenging employment opportunities and living conditions for the working class.

Have we truly benefitted from the processes and technologies that came from the Industrial Revolution? Should the developing world go through this process as well?

List of the Pros of the Industrial Revolution

1. The Industrial Revolution helped goods to become more affordable. When people were making manufactured goods in their basement, most families were creating enough to meet their exact needs. If you didn’t have the skills to make your own clothes, then the scarcity in this marketplace meant that you might be spending a small fortune to get the shirt that you wanted.

Thanks to the processes introduced by the Industrial Revolution, companies could produce items faster than ever before. These methods increased the number of items that could be made per hour as well since items didn’t need to be made by hand any more. As supplies went up, then prices went down. Having an enhanced quality of life was no longer as expensive as it used to ne.

2. It helped to create the import and export markets around the world. Businesses could use the ideas created from the Industrial Revolution to have a greater supply available for specific products. When domestic demand was not enough to help maximize production, the rise of the multinational firm began. Countries could expand their import and export markets for the goods that were being made. The world began to see that the balance of trade was shifting to the producer, increasing the wealth of businesses and adding tax revenues to society.

3. Companies were creating inventions that could save on labor and time investments. Thanks to the Industrial Revolution, there was a rapid production of useful items and hand tools. This process quickly led to the development of new vehicles and tool types that could carry more items, including people, from one place to another. We began to create roads once again that could support higher levels of traffic. The telegraph came about during this time to improve our communication processes, which eventually led to the telephone and fiber optics.

Even machines like the Spinning Jenny, which was a multiple spindle item that could spin cotton or wool, allowed us to make more things in less time. When electricity became available, then refrigeration and home appliances increased our standard of living even further.

4. It led to an evolution in our approach to medicine. Many of the advances that led to the development of modern medical practices occurred because of the efforts of the Industrial Revolution. It became possible to make more instruments, such as test tubes, scalpels, and lab equipment, at a lower cost so that more people could enter this field. Refinements to design helped doctors become more effective at what they could do.

As communication lines improved throughout the world, doctors and researchers could work together to find new cures or treatments for deadly diseases instead of trying to do everything on their own. New best practices were developed based on the findings of this work. These processes results in a significant increase of patient care throughout the world.

5. The Industrial Revolution improved the quality of life for the average person. Until the Industrial Revolution swung into action full force, it was typically the aristocratic people in society who benefitted from comfort and convenience. Thanks to mass production, lower costs, and greater availability, people in the working class could obtain more items while still having money left to save for other things. Even though there were some poor working conditions at the time, it became possible for a majority of families to start building wealth of their own.

That meant people could own a home without being a farmer. They could have enough food to get by for the week instead of limiting themselves to one meal per day. Some companies were even building towns and giving away homes to those who were willing to work in the factories. This event helped to shape our modern infrastructure.

6. It created more job opportunities around the world. As new manufacturing equipment began to make its way to factory floors, there were new jobs created in each community. There were fewer land-related concerns that drove the economy because there was less dependence on farm labor wages. It meant the average person could make their wealth with a decent job as an employee instead of trying to carve out a life for themselves on their own.

Some workers even took a portion of their wages to invest in other companies, leading to a growing middle class around the world. It created a new pool of economic power that started to limit the influence of the aristocracy. This advantage eventually led to a shift in local laws that helped to give more rights to the average person.

7. The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of specialists. The only real specialists that existed in the economy before the Industrial Revolution were the farmers and agricultural workers who grew one crop for sale. As factories began to start operating in the cities, rural families began to move to the cities because the jobs there would pay better. Owners began to train factory workers to perform specific tasks that could become their specialty.

Some workers began to transport raw materials for processing. Others worked on specific machines. There were people in maintenance, marketing, or charged with making improvements to the overall operations of each facility. As each task became more skilled, there became a need to have more trainers to pass on what had been learned.

8. It led to the modern development of municipalities. As people began to move away from the rural life to pursue their opportunities in the Industrial Revolution, governments needed to change how they supported each municipality. The bureaucracies grew to support specialized departments that could handle sanitation issues, tax collection, traffic problems, and other localized services that were necessary. New businesses began to form as people began to support these workers, leading to lawyers, physicians, and builders forming their own opportunities.

9. Anyone had the opportunity to make it big during the Industrial Revolution. Charles Goodyear is credited with the discovery of rubber vulcanization, a process that allows it to withstand heat and cold. This process revolutionized the industry in the middle of the 19th century. It was also a journey that almost ruined his life. Goodyear put his family into substantial debt to finance his rubber experiences. He moved anywhere to find investors and laboratory space.

At one point, he sold his furniture, begged for money, and even sold the textbooks of his children. After the financial panic of 1837, he lost almost everything. Then, in a miracle accident, he combined rubber and sulfur on a hot stove. It hardened when it got hotter. Many people pursued a similar path without finding the same success, but it was one of the first times in history when anyone could invest into themselves to change their stars.

10. Manufactured products were seen as an investment more than a necessity. Before the Industrial Revolution changed the quality and quantity of the goods we consume, items were purchased because of their usefulness. When inventories began to build and products became cheaper, we could make clothes that lasted longer. Structures required less maintenance. People were spending less time making their own items because a small investment created long-term results.

This advantage also increased the amount of competition that society experienced. Instead of staying in the family business or becoming an apprentice of a relative, anyone could travel anywhere in the industrialized world to look for employment opportunities that they wanted. It is a process that would help to create the first authentic free-market economies.

List of the Cons of the Industrial Revolution

1. It led to a significant amount of wealth inequality. Before the Industrial Revolution occurred, the only people who were genuinely wealthy were those who came from royalty or had invented something that was exceptionally useful to society – such as a telescope. After this development period, it was the people who were leading the businesses that made the most money – and it was often at the expense of the poor and working class.

Before his divorce proceedings in 2019, the estimated net worth of Jeff Bezos was about $157 billion. His finances, along with Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Elon Musk are all the subject of modern wealth inequality conversations. If you look at the American Industrial Revolutionists like Andrew Carnegie and John Rockefeller, they had $310 billion and $340 billion at a time when the money was worth more.

Rockefeller by himself controlled 1.5% of the American economy. Using a standard inflation calculator, his net worth by today’s standards of value was over $8.1 trillion.

2. The Industrial Revolution led to an overcrowding in the cities. Many migrants began to make their way to the industrial towns and major cities during the Industrial Revolution because of the promise of better wages. These communities were not prepared for the influx of people that headed their way. Builders would eventually help to relieve the initial housing shortages that occurred, eventually leading to the modern building and multi-floor structures, there were lots of shantytowns that developed in the early days in Britain.

This disadvantage led to problems with sewage and sanitation, which caused contamination of the local drinking water. With lots of people all living in the same area, worn out by challenging working conditions, and consuming unsafe fluids, there were numerous disease outbreaks. Smallpox, cholera, tuberculosis, and typhus were all significant problems in the industrialized cities until urban planning and medical care could improve the environment.

3. It creates a higher level of pollution in the environment. Many of the environmental problems that we still struggle with today are because of the activities and follow-up technologies from the Industrial Revolution. Factories needed fuel to sustain their daily output, so natural resources were transformed into capital. We began to use our soil, minerals, trees, oil, and water to continue producing items. This disadvantage led to global challenges that included air pollution biodiversity reduction, water pollution, habitat destruction, and even global warming.

As more countries began to pursue wealth through this process, then the adverse ecological transformations increate. One of the drivers of this problem is carbon dioxide. Before 1750, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere was about 290 parts per million. It was 400 parts per million by volume in 2017.

4. The Industrial Revolution appropriates materials for natural use to human use. Humanity is now using about 40% of its planetary land-based net primary production to create items through manufacturing processes because of the Industrial Revolution. This measurement is the rate at which plants convert solar energy for nutrients and growth. As populations rise, more of our resources go toward human use instead of allowing nature to run its course. That means there are fewer ecosystem services, such as clean water and air, that plants and animals can use.

Our biosphere depends on these elements for our survival. Unless we are willing to make changes to our manufacturing processes that reduce the threat of habitat destruction and resource consumption, the future of our world could look very different than what we have today.

5. There were very poor working conditions in the early factories. When the Industrial Revolution began to build factories in the cities and industrial communities, the business owners looked to maximize their profit through high levels of production. Wages and worker safety were rarely an important part of that equation. Although families could earn more working in these conditions when compared to the rural life, it came through an agreement to work up to 16 hours per day, six days per week. Women and children earned half as much of the men if they were lucky.

The equipment in the factories was usually dirty as well, expelling soot and smoke that led to breathing issues, accidents, and injuries. Although this disadvantage would eventually lead to the formation of labor unions, there were a lot of family sacrifices made before this societal transformation.

6. It created a culture of passivity. The Industrial Revolution helped to develop numerous labor-saving devices and equipment. Instead of performing strenuous activities for the bare minimum of needs, people were using equipment more often. Specialized tools allowed for tilling, planting, and harvesting. Bicycles and automobiles reduced the need to walk. Tasks that used to require physical exertion became sedentary office jobs.

That led to entertainment options that became sedentary as well. Our eating choices became more about convenience than nutrition. It has led to a culture where many people eat items that are heavily processed with sugar and salt to maintain shelf life, increase sweetness, and lower cooking times. This disadvantage has led to lifestyle-related diseases like heart disease, obesity, and even some forms of cancer.

7. The Industrial Revolution was powered by petroleum and other oils. It was not petroleum that helped to initially fuel the Industrial Revolution around the world. It was whale oil. This product was useful for soap and margarine, and it was widely used in the oil lamps of the time. It was not until the 19th century, when we began to use petroleum products for these needs, that the hunting habits for these creatures began to decline. The only way to harvest that product was to boil strips of blubber after pulling the creature to land.

If it happened at sea, the oil was harvested on the ship, and then the remaining carcass was thrown into the ocean to catch the next one. This disadvantage caused a significant reduction in the population of baleen, bowhead, and right whales. They were hunted almost to extinction.

8. It changed how we produce agricultural items. The factory processes drove many workers away from the farms to earn better wages and live in bigger homes. That meant the agricultural sector had to do more with fewer workers. This disadvantage would eventually lead to the formation of corporate, large-scale forming. New methods of food production had to be created to serve the growing industrial tows around the world.

Instead of growing crops and raising livestock to meet the needs of each family, agriculture became a business that focused on profits and losses. This disadvantage is what eventually led us to the world of genetically modified foods, potentially harmful pesticides, and similar problems in our food chain.

9. The Industrial Revolution changed the politics of the world. We are still experiencing the fallout of the Industrial Revolution today. There are currently less than 40 nations who we consider to have gone through the full industrialization process. The opportunities for success are much greater there than the rest of the world in comparison. Although most people can find a way to receive an education in the developed world if they want that opportunity, the lack of resources that are available domestically make it nearly impossible for trained individuals to come home to make the changes that are necessary for success.

This creates a dependency on the developed countries because the developing world does not have the same resource access. That is why a majority of the income today is in the nations that went through the Industrial Revolution at its earliest stages.

Verdict on the Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution

When we look at the results of the Industrial Revolution today, many of the items that we take for granted came about because of this process. Even for population centers in the developing world, the access to affordable clothing, production tools, and leisure equipment is due to the innovation and creativity from this time.

We must also recognize that the countries who went through the Industrial Revolution are the ones which benefitted the most financially from this process. Societal wealth was built on the backs of the working class, which allowed the aristocracy to remain in power – just in a different way. Instead of controlling the entire market, those in charge helped to determine who could have access to the new economy.

The pros and cons of the Industrial Revolution are essential to review today because we are going through a new process. We are in the middle of the Data Revolution, where every action we take in person or online allows companies to develop insights into our behavior. This process creates targeted marketing mechanisms which we continue to support through our own labor while the environmental consequences begin to build.

Unless we learn from the lessons of the past, we will repeat the same mistakes in the future.

Essay on Industrial Revolution

Introduction to the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a pivotal moment in history, radically reshaping societies, economies, and landscapes worldwide. Beginning in the late 18th century, this era of rapid technological advancement and urbanization marked a profound departure from agrarian lifestyles. For example, the mechanization of textile production in Britain revolutionized manufacturing methods, resulting in unprecedented economic growth and social change. As steam-powered factories proliferated, traditional modes of living gave way to the relentless march of progress. This essay explores the complex impact of the Industrial Revolution, analyzing its causes, consequences, and long-term influence.

Historical Context

• Pre-Industrial Society : Before the Industrial Revolution, most societies were agrarian, with most people living in rural areas and working in agriculture .
• Technological Limitations : Most manufacturing was done in small-scale workshops using hand tools, limiting production capacity and efficiency.
• Limited Transportation : The need for efficient transportation systems made moving goods and people over long distances difficult.
• Cottage Industry : Some manufacturing processes were decentralized and conducted in homes (known as the cottage industry), but there was a need to improve this on a larger scale and broader scope.
• Feudalism and Guilds : Feudal social structures and guilds controlled much of the economic and social life, restricting innovation and economic growth.
• Mercantilism : Economic policies were often based on mercantilist principles, emphasizing exporting more than importing and accumulating precious metals.
• Enlightenment Ideas : The Enlightenment brought new ideas about science, reason, and individualism, setting the stage for questioning traditional practices and systems.

Significance of the Industrial Revolution

• Economic Transformation : Agrarian economies gave way to industrialized ones during the Industrial Revolution, which resulted in unheard-of economic development and wealth creation.
• Technological Advancement : It introduced groundbreaking innovations such as the steam engine, mechanized textile production, and transportation systems, laying the foundation for modern industrial and technological progress.
• Urbanization : As factories and industrial hubs grew, many people moved from rural to urban areas, accelerating urbanization and changing the demographic picture.
• Social Change : The Industrial Revolution brought about profound social transformations, including the emergence of the working class, changes in family structures, and new patterns of consumption and leisure.
• Global Impact : Industrialization spread from its birthplace in Britain to Europe, North America, and eventually the rest of the world, reshaping global trade patterns and contributing to colonial expansion.
• Environmental Impact : While facilitating unprecedented production and consumption, industrialization also led to environmental degradation, including pollution, deforestation, and resource depletion.
• Political Ramifications : The rise of industrial capitalism challenged traditional power structures, leading to political reforms, labor movements, and the rise of new ideologies such as socialism and communism.
• Cultural Shifts : The Industrial Revolution influenced cultural production, including literature, art, and music, reflecting the social and economic changes of the era and shaping modern cultural sensibilities.

Pre-Industrial Society

• Environmental Impact : While facilitating unprecedented production and consumption, industrialization also led to environmental degradation, including pollution, deforestation , and resource depletion.

Catalysts of Change

• Technological Innovations : The development of new technologies, such as the steam engine, mechanized looms, and the spinning jenny, revolutionized production processes, increasing efficiency and output.
• Economic Factors : Changing economic conditions, including the rise of capitalism, the accumulation of capital, and the demand for cheaper and more abundant goods, created incentives for innovation and investment in industrial ventures.
• Social and Political Developments : Shifts in social structures and political systems, such as the decline of feudalism, the rise of urban centers, and changes in labor relations, provided fertile ground for the emergence of industrialization.
• Access to Resources : The availability of resources, including coal and iron ore, provided the necessary raw materials for industrial production, while access to markets facilitated the distribution and sale of goods.
• Colonial Expansion : Colonial empires gave access to new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities, resulting in economic growth and industrial development in colonial powers.
• Scientific Advancements : Advances in science and engineering, as well as applying scientific principles to industry, fueled innovation and technological progress, accelerating the pace of change.
• Trade and Globalization : Increasing interconnectedness through trade networks and globalization facilitated the diffusion of ideas, technologies, and capital, contributing to the spread of industrialization beyond its initial development centers.

Industrialization Spreads

• Britain Leads the Way : The Industrial Revolution originated in Britain in the late 18th century, driven by abundant natural resources, a skilled workforce, and a conducive political and economic environment.
• Europe and North America : Industrialization spread rapidly to other parts of Europe, including France, Germany, and Belgium, and North America, particularly the United States and Canada, where it fueled economic growth and urbanization.
• Global Implications : The spread of industrialization had profound global implications, as European powers established colonial empires and introduced industrial technologies to colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
• Colonial Industrialization : Colonies became centers of raw material extraction and production for the industrialized world, contributing to global trade networks and economic interdependence.
• Asia and Latin America : Industrialization also took root in certain regions of Asia, such as Japan, India, and China, as well as in countries in Latin America, albeit to varying degrees and with different trajectories influenced by local conditions and historical factors.
• Impact on Global Economy : The spread of industrialization reshaped the global economy, leading to shifts in wealth and power, the emergence of new economic centers, and increased competition for resources and markets.
• Technological Diffusion : Advances in transportation and communication facilitated the diffusion of industrial technologies and knowledge, accelerating the pace of industrialization worldwide.
• Social and Cultural Changes : Industrialization brought about significant social and cultural changes in societies worldwide, including urbanization, changes in family structure, and shifts in values and lifestyles.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Society

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• Urbanization and Population Growth : The growth of factories and industrial centers caused widespread migration from rural areas to urban centers, resulting in fast urbanization and the establishment of large populations in cities.
• Social Stratification and Class Conflict : Industrialization created a new class structure, with industrial capitalists, factory owners, and managers at the top and a working class of laborers and factory workers at the bottom, leading to increased social stratification and class conflict.
• Changing Gender Roles : Industrialization reshaped traditional gender roles as women entered the workforce in large numbers, particularly in factories and mills, challenging traditional notions of women’s roles in society.
• Child Labor and Exploitation : The demand for cheap labor in factories led to the widespread exploitation of children, who were employed in hazardous working conditions and often subjected to long hours and low wages.
• Urban Poverty and Poor Living Conditions : Industrialization led to urban poverty and slums because cities struggled to provide adequate housing, sanitation, and public services for their growing populations .
• Labor Movements and Unionization : The harsh working conditions and labor exploitation in factories spurred the rise of labor movements and the formation of labor unions, which fought for better wages, working hours, and conditions for workers.
• Education and Social Reform : Industrialization led to increased emphasis on education and social reform, as reformers sought to address the social problems and inequalities caused by industrialization through initiatives such as public education, social welfare programs, and labor laws.
• Family Dynamics : Industrialization transformed family dynamics as families migrated to cities in search of work, leading to changes in family structure, roles, and relationships, as well as new challenges in balancing work and family life.
• Cultural Shifts : Industrialization brought about cultural shifts, as urbanization, mass production, and technological advancements influenced art, literature, music, and popular culture, reflecting the social and economic changes of the era.

Economic Transformation

• Rise of Capitalism : The Industrial Revolution marked the ascendance of capitalism as the dominant economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, profit motive, and market competition.
• Factory System and Mass Production : The development of the factory system enabled the mass production of goods on a scale never before seen, leading to increased efficiency, lower costs, and the production of a wide variety of consumer goods.
• Division of Labor : Industrialization introduced the concept of division of labor, where tasks were broken down into smaller, specialized tasks performed by different workers, increasing productivity and efficiency.
• Expansion of Markets : Industrialization expanded markets for goods, both domestically and internationally, as transportation networks improved and global trade increased, leading to economic growth and prosperity.
• Labor Exploitation and Working Conditions : While industrialization brought economic growth, it also led to labor exploitation, with long hours, low wages, and poor working conditions in factories and mines.
• Technological Advancements : Technological innovations that revolutionized production processes and communication, such as the steam engine, mechanized looms, and the telegraph, were the driving forces behind industrialization.
• Impact on Agriculture : Industrialization also profoundly impacted agriculture, with the mechanization of farming leading to increased agricultural productivity and the migration of rural populations to urban areas in search of work.
• Formation of Business Corporations : The Industrial Revolution saw the rise of large business corporations, which became dominant players in the economy, controlling vast resources and influencing government policies.
• Income Inequality : Industrialization led to income inequality, as industrial capitalists amassed wealth while many workers struggled to make ends meet, leading to social unrest and calls for reform.

Technological Advancements

• Steam Power : The invention and widespread use of the steam engine revolutionized the industry, enabling factories to be powered by steam and significantly increasing transportation efficiency through steam-powered trains and ships.
• Mechanization of Textile Production : Innovations such as the spinning jenny, water frame, and power loom mechanized textile production, leading to the rapid growth of the textile industry and the availability of cheap clothing.
• Iron and Steel Production : The advancement of new techniques for iron and steel production revolutionized construction and manufacturing, facilitating the creation of bridges, railways, and buildings on an unprecedented scale.
• Transportation Revolution : The Industrial Revolution saw the development of steam-powered locomotives and railways, significantly improving transportation efficiency and connectivity and facilitating the movement of goods and people over long distances.
• Communication Revolution : Samuel Morse’s invention of the telegraph revolutionized communication, enabling messages to be sent quickly over long distances and transforming business, government, and personal communication.
• Chemical Innovations : Advances in chemistry led to the development of new materials, such as plastics and synthetic dyes, revolutionizing manufacturing and consumer goods production.
• Machine Tools : The invention of machine tools such as lathes and milling machines revolutionized manufacturing, enabling the mass production of precision parts and components.
• Electrical Revolution : The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the harnessing of electricity for industrial use, leading to the development of electric lighting, motors, and appliances, transforming daily life and industry.
• Medical and Scientific Advances : The Industrial Revolution also saw significant advancements in medicine and science, such as the development of vaccines, the germ theory of disease, and the understanding of electricity, laying the groundwork for future scientific and medical discoveries.

Cultural and Intellectual Shifts

• Urbanization and the Rise of Urban Culture : The migration of people from rural areas to cities led to the emergence of urban culture, characterized by new forms of entertainment, leisure activities, and social interactions in urban centers.
• Literary and Artistic Movements : The Industrial Revolution gave rise to literary and artistic movements such as Romanticism and Realism that explored the changes brought about by industrialization in themes like nature and the human condition.
• Educational Reforms : The need for an educated workforce led to educational reforms, including expanding public education and establishing schools and universities to provide workers with the skills needed for industrial jobs.
• Scientific Advancements : Significant advancements in science and technology, such as the emergence of new scientific theories like Darwin’s theory of evolution and the application of scientific principles to industry and medicine, coincided with the Industrial Revolution.
• Rise of Consumer Culture : The expansion of mass production and the accessibility of affordable consumer goods contributed to the emergence of consumer culture, with advertising and marketing assuming a central role in influencing consumer preferences and behaviors.
• Social Reform Movements : The harsh working conditions and social inequalities of the Industrial Revolution spurred the rise of social reform movements, including labor unions, women’s rights movements, and movements for social justice and equality.
• Philosophical and Political Ideologies : The Industrial Revolution gave rise to new philosophical and political ideologies, such as socialism, communism, and liberalism, which sought to address the social and economic challenges of the era and envision alternative visions of society.
• Impact on Religion : The Industrial Revolution profoundly impacted religion, challenging traditional beliefs and practices through scientific discoveries, technological advancements, and evolving social conditions.
• Cultural Exchange and Globalization : The Industrial Revolution facilitated cultural exchange and globalization, as ideas, goods, and people traveled more freely across borders, leading to the spread of cultural influences and the emergence of a more interconnected world.

Responses and Resistance

• Labor Movements and Unionization : Workers organized into labor unions to advocate for better wages, working conditions, and rights. Strikes, protests, and collective bargaining were common tactics used by labor movements to challenge the power of industrial capitalists.
• Luddite Movement : The Luddites were groups of workers who protested against introducing new machinery and technology in the textile industry, fearing that it would lead to job losses and exploitation. They engaged in acts of sabotage and destruction of machinery as a form of resistance.
• Government Regulation and Reform : In response to social and labor unrest, governments enacted labor laws and regulations to safeguard workers’ rights and enhance working conditions. These reforms included limits on working hours, safety regulations, and the establishment of minimum wage laws.
• Socialism and Communism : Socialism and communism are political ideologies advocating for collective ownership of means of production and redistribution of wealth to address social inequalities. Socialist and communist movements sought to challenge the power of industrial capitalists and create a more equitable society.
• Mutual Aid Societies : Workers formed mutual aid societies and cooperatives to provide support and assistance to each other in times of need, such as illness, injury, or unemployment. These organizations helped strengthen solidarity among workers and provide a safety net without government support.
• Religious and Ethical Responses : Religious and ethical movements, such as the Social Gospel movement, emphasized the moral imperative to address social injustices and improve the lives of the working poor. These movements often worked alongside labor unions and social reformers to advocate for social change.
• Artistic and Cultural Resistance : Artists, writers, and intellectuals employed their work to scrutinize the Industrial Revolution’s social and economic inequalities and raise awareness about the challenges faced by the working class. Literature, art, and music often depicted the struggles and hardships faced by workers in industrial society.
• International Solidarity : Workers’ movements and labor unions forged alliances and solidarity networks across national boundaries to support one another’s struggles and exchange resources and information. Global labor conferences and congresses were held to coordinate efforts and advocate for workers’ rights on an international scale.

Legacy of the Industrial Revolution

• Economic Transformation : The Industrial Revolution laid the foundation for modern industrial economies, shifting societies from agrarian to industrial and setting the stage for unprecedented economic growth and development.
• Technological Advancements : The Industrial Revolution introduced revolutionary technologies that transformed industry, transportation, and communication, leading to the modern world of machinery, factories, and global interconnectedness.
• Urbanization and Population Shifts : The Industrial Revolution spurred the expansion of cities and the emergence of urban centers as hubs for industry, commerce, and culture.
• Social and Political Changes : The Industrial Revolution brought about significant social and political changes, including the rise of capitalism, the emergence of new social classes, and the expansion of democracy and political rights.
• Environmental Impact : The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the environment, leading to pollution, deforestation, and other forms of environmental degradation that continue to affect the planet today.
• Labor Rights and Social Welfare : The Industrial Revolution spurred movements for labor rights and social welfare, leading to the establishment of labor laws, minimum wage regulations, and other protections for workers.
• Globalization : The Industrial Revolution was a key driver of globalization, connecting distant parts of the world through trade, transportation, and communication networks and shaping the modern global economy.
• Cultural and Intellectual Shifts : The Industrial Revolution influenced cultural and intellectual developments, leading to new artistic movements, scientific discoveries, and philosophical and political ideologies impacting society today.
• Inequality and Social Justice : The Industrial Revolution also deepened inequalities and social injustices, leading to ongoing debates and struggles over issues such as wealth distribution, labor rights, and environmental sustainability.

The Industrial Revolution is a transformative epoch in human history, reshaping societies, economies, and landscapes across the globe. Its legacy is profound, laying the foundation for modern industrialized societies and shaping the course of modernization, urbanization, and globalization. While it brought unparalleled economic growth and technological advancement, it also presented substantial social and environmental challenges, including urban poverty, environmental degradation, and labor exploitation. As we reflect on its impact, it is essential to learn from the past, striving to address its legacies of inequality and environmental damage while harnessing its innovations for a more sustainable and equitable future.

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Chapter 2 The Industrial Revolution and Its Discontents

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The stock narrative of the Industrial Revolution (ca. 1760–late 1800s) is one of moral and economic progress. Indeed, economic progress is cast as moral progress. The story tends to go something like this: inventors, economists, and statesmen in Western Europe dreamed up a new industrialized world. Fueled by the optimism and scientific know-how of the Enlightenment, a series of heroic men—James Watt, Adam Smith, William Huskisson, and so on— fought back against the stultifying effects of regulated economies, irrational laws and customs, and a traditional guild structure that quashed innovation. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had managed to implement a laissez-faire (“free”) economy that ran on new machines and was centered around modern factories and an urban working class. It was a long and difficult process, but this revolution eventually brought Europeans to a new plateau of civilization. In the end, Europeans lived in a new world based on wage labor, easy mobility, and the consumption of sparkling products. Europe had rescued itself from the pre-industrial misery that had hampered humankind since the dawn of time. Cheap and abundant fossil fuel powered the trains and other steam engines that drove humankind into this brave new future. Later, around the time that Europeans decided that colonial slavery wasn’t such a good idea, they exported this revolution to other parts of the world, so that everyone could participate in freedom and industrialized modernity. They did this, in part, by “opening up markets” in primitive agrarian societies. The net result has been increased human happiness, wealth, and productivity—the attainment of our true potential as a species! Sadly, this saccharine story still sweetens our societal self-image. Indeed, it is deeply ingrained in the collective identity of the industrialized world. The narrative has gotten more complex but remains a la base a triumphalist story.

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Industrial Revolution in the United States Essay

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Introduction

The industrial revolution in america, impacts of the industrial revolution in america, americans reaction towards the industrial revolution, works cited.

The industrial revolution refers to the time period in which changes in production processes had extreme impacts on man’s social, economic, and cultural status. The changes were realized in sectors such as agricultural, manufacturing, and transport, among other sectors. This paper seeks to discuss the subject of the industrial revolution in the United States. The paper will look into the development of the industrial revolution in the United States, the changes that were caused by the revolution, and the reactions that Americans had towards the industrial revolution.

The industrial revolution was a period of transformation from reliance on human beings in production processes to great dependence on machines to produce commodities. The revolution is believed to have originated from Great Britain before spreading through Europe and then to other parts of the world. The British industrial revolution was also directly and almost instantly spread to British colonies, which were at the time run as its territories. The revolution’s transformation of economic operations from human labor to employment of machines was characterized by transformation in economies in which traditional agricultural practices were, for example, replaced by industrial processes.

Machines that were invented played an important role in removing people from their jobs and replacing them with machines that did the jobs in a better way and also produced products of better utility to people. The developments due to the revolution were also characterized by the invention of better transportation means that were more affordable and accessible. People were basically contained around their homesteads with major duties being either farming or performing duties in homesteads before the revolution, which later changed events in the then American societies as professions changed from the earlier farming into industrial jobs. Vast resources that were available in the United States contributed to the quick industrialization that was realized in the country (Brezina 4).

One of the immediate impacts of the industrial revolution was the transformation of the American economy from being agriculturally based on being an industrial economy. Consumptions were previously direct agricultural products. The introduction of machines into the economy, however, transformed the system into industrial production focused. Agricultural products were transformed into forms of more refined products, and other industrial production processes were established.

The industrial revolution also had the impact of job losses among the American people in the agricultural farms in which they were employed as manual laborers. The introduction of machines in the agricultural sector, which were more efficient as compared to human labor, led to the displacement of people from their jobs in the agricultural sector as their positions were then taken by machines. The revolution can, therefore, be said to have caused unemployment among the American people, at least at the time it was being launched in the country (Brezina 8).

Loss in artistic skills was also experienced following the emergence of industrialization in the United States. The wave of people that moved people from their rural farms in order to take up jobs in industries affected artisans who followed the mass, abandoned their tools, and moved to take industrial jobs factories. Their positions were then taken by unskilled people who had just moved to the profession to fill the gap that was left by the artist who had left for the industrial jobs. The industrial revolution also changed the social structure that was previously dominant in America. Parents moved to take jobs in industries, thereby reducing the socially family-based environment that had existed before the revolution (Brezina 51).

The revolution that invaded American society led to a number of transformations in the nature of the American people in their society. A number of reactions to the changes caused by the industrial revolution were evident in terms of behavior and social set up. In reaction to the industrial revolution, significant changes were realized in the nineteenth century regarding the structure and nature of American society. Henry Bellows, for example, outlined some characteristic features that were realized in America towards the middle of the nineteenth century. The economic changes that were realized following the wave of the industrial revolution forced Americans to work harder and for longer hours in order to sustain their family needs.

Bellow expressed the concern that following the revolution, “lawyer must confine himself to his office” (Bellows 95) and “the physician must labor day and night” (Bellows 95) in his duty. Americans generally reacted to changed conditions by increasing their efforts at work. Another form of reaction to the wave of revolution was the attitude of ambitious gains that people developed. This could be attributed to the lower wages that resulted from industrialization. Another evident reaction, as represented by Bellow, was the affinity or desire that people developed for money. He described the then society as “doomed tradesmen” who could “mistake money for the kingdom of heaven” (Bellows 96). These, among others, were reactions towards industrialization.

The industrial revolution that was experienced in the United States of America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had great effects on the American people and, as a result, led to a number of reactions by Americans to the impacts of the revolution.

Bellows, Henry. The Influence of the Trading Spirit upon the Social and Moral Life of America . New York: Wiley and Putnam, 2009. Print.

Brezina, Corona. The Industrial Revolution in America: A Primary Source History of America’s Transformation into an Industrial Society . New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2005. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2020, June 4). Industrial Revolution in the United States. https://ivypanda.com/essays/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/

"Industrial Revolution in the United States." IvyPanda , 4 June 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Industrial Revolution in the United States'. 4 June.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Industrial Revolution in the United States." June 4, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/.

1. IvyPanda . "Industrial Revolution in the United States." June 4, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Industrial Revolution in the United States." June 4, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/.

Essay on Industrial Revolution

Students are often asked to write an essay on Industrial Revolution in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Industrial Revolution

What was the industrial revolution.

The Industrial Revolution was a big change in how things were made. Before, people made goods by hand at home. Then, machines in big buildings called factories started doing this work. This change began in Britain in the late 1700s and spread to other countries.

Changes in Technology

New machines could spin thread much faster than by hand. The steam engine was also invented. This could power machines and move trains and ships. These inventions made making things and moving them around quicker and cheaper.

Impact on People

Many people left farms to work in factories in cities. Life became hard for these workers. They worked long hours for little money. But, more goods were made, and over time, people’s lives improved as new jobs were created.

Global Effects

The Industrial Revolution changed the world. Countries with factories got rich and powerful. They used resources from other places to make goods. This led to big changes in trade and made some countries very wealthy.

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250 Words Essay on Industrial Revolution

What was the industrial revolution.

The Industrial Revolution was a big change in the way things were made. Before this time, people made goods by hand at home or in small shops. Around the late 18th century, this changed. Machines began to do the work in big factories. This started in Britain and then spread to other parts of the world.

Changes in Industry

Machines could make things faster and cheaper than humans could by hand. This meant more products could be made and more people could buy them. Steam engines powered these machines, and coal was the fuel. This led to a rise in coal mining and iron production.

Life During the Revolution

Because of factory work, cities grew as people moved there for jobs. This was a big shift from life on farms. Working in factories was hard, and many worked long hours for low pay. The air and water got dirty from the factories, too.

Impact on Society

The Industrial Revolution changed life a lot. Travel became easier with trains and steamships. Communication got better with inventions like the telegraph. People’s lives improved with new goods and technology. But, there were also bad parts, like child labor and pollution.

500 Words Essay on Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a time of big change in how people worked and lived. It started in the late 1700s and went on until the early 1800s. Before this period, most goods were made by hand, and people lived in small villages and worked on farms. But during the Industrial Revolution, machines began to do the work that people and animals used to do. This change began in Britain and then spread to other countries, including the United States and parts of Europe.

New Inventions

One of the most important parts of the Industrial Revolution was the creation of new machines. These machines could make things faster and cheaper than before. For example, the spinning jenny allowed one worker to make several threads at the same time, and the steam engine could power different kinds of machines. Because of these inventions, factories were built where many machines could work together. This was much different from the old way of making things at home or in small workshops.

Life in Factories

Transportation changes.

The Industrial Revolution also changed how goods and people moved from place to place. The steam locomotive made it possible to build railways, which could transport goods and people much faster than horses and carts. Ships also got steam engines, which made travel across oceans quicker and easier. This meant that goods could be sold far away, and it was easier for people to move to new places.

The Industrial Revolution had a big impact on society. It made some people very rich, especially those who owned the factories. But many workers lived in poor conditions and did not get much money. Over time, this led to new laws to protect workers and improve their lives.

Changes in Agriculture

Farming also changed during the Industrial Revolution. New machines like the seed drill and the mechanical reaper made farming more efficient. This meant fewer people were needed to work on farms, so they went to work in the factories instead.

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change. It made life different in many ways, from how people made things to how they lived and worked. It was not always easy or good for everyone, but it led to the modern world we know today. We still feel the effects of these changes in our daily lives, as the new ways of making and doing things that started back then continue to shape our world.

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Essay on Industrial Revolution

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The Industrial Revolution marks a pivotal period in human history, fundamentally transforming the fabric of society, economy, and technology. Spanning from the late 18th to the early 19th century, it commenced in Britain and gradually proliferated across the globe. This essay delves into the essence, causes, key developments, and profound impacts of the Industrial Revolution, offering insights for students participating in essay writing competitions.

Industrial Revolution

The genesis of the Industrial Revolution can be traced back to Britain, fueled by a confluence of factors including agricultural advancements, population growth, financial innovations, and a surge in demand for goods. Agricultural improvements led to food surplus, supporting a burgeoning population that provided labor and created a market for industrial goods. Moreover, Britain’s political stability, patent laws, and access to vast resources due to its colonial empire set a fertile ground for industrial innovation.

Technological Innovations

At the heart of the Industrial Revolution were groundbreaking technological innovations that revolutionized manufacturing processes. The introduction of the steam engine by James Watt and the development of power looms significantly enhanced productivity, transitioning industries from manual labor to mechanized production. The iron and coal industries also saw major advancements, with the smelting process being vastly improved by Abraham Darby’s use of coke, leading to stronger and cheaper iron.

Impact on Society and Economy

The Industrial Revolution ushered in dramatic social and economic shifts. Urbanization escalated as people flocked to cities in search of employment in factories, giving rise to burgeoning urban centers. While the revolution generated wealth and propelled economic growth, it also introduced stark social disparities and challenging working conditions. Child labor, long working hours, and unsafe environments became prevalent issues, sparking movements for labor rights and reforms.

Impact on Society

• Urbanization: The Industrial Revolution led to a massive shift from rural areas to cities as people moved in search of employment in factories. This urbanization changed the social fabric, leading to the growth of urban centers and the emergence of a new urban working class.
• Labor Conditions: Factory work during the early Industrial Revolution was often characterized by long hours, low wages, and harsh working conditions. This led to labor protests and the eventual emergence of labor unions advocating for workers’ rights.
• Technological Advancements: The Industrial Revolution saw the development of new technologies and machinery that revolutionized production processes. Innovations like the steam engine and mechanized textile mills transformed industries and increased efficiency.
• Social Stratification: The gap between the wealthy industrialists and the working class widened during this period, resulting in increased social inequality. The emergence of a capitalist class and the growth of industrial capitalism contributed to this divide.
• Education and Literacy: The need for a skilled workforce led to greater emphasis on education. Public education systems began to develop, contributing to higher literacy rates among the population.
• Family Life: The traditional family structure evolved as men, women, and children worked in factories. Child labor, in particular, became a contentious issue, eventually leading to child labor laws and reforms.
• Social Reform Movements: The harsh conditions of industrialization fueled various social reform movements, including the women’s suffrage movement, the abolitionist movement, and efforts to improve public health and housing conditions.

Impact on the Economy

• Economic Growth: The Industrial Revolution fueled rapid economic growth as production processes became more efficient, leading to increased output of goods and services.
• New Industries: New industries and sectors emerged, such as textiles, coal mining, iron and steel production, and transportation. These industries became the backbone of the modern economy.
• Global Trade: The Industrial Revolution facilitated global trade by improving transportation and communication networks. The expansion of railways, canals, and steamships allowed for the movement of goods on a larger scale.
• Entrepreneurship: The period saw the rise of entrepreneurship, with individuals and companies investing in new ventures and technologies. Innovators like James Watt and George Stephenson played pivotal roles in the development of steam power and transportation.
• Financial Institutions: The growth of industry led to the expansion of financial institutions, including banks and stock exchanges, to support investment and capital accumulation.
• Capitalism and Market Economies: The Industrial Revolution played a significant role in the development of capitalism and market-driven economies, with private ownership of means of production and the pursuit of profit as driving forces.
• Labor Markets: Labor markets evolved as people migrated to urban areas in search of work. The supply of labor increased, impacting wages, labor laws, and the development of employment contracts.
• Consumer Culture: Mass production and improved transportation made consumer goods more accessible and affordable. This contributed to the rise of consumer culture and the growth of retail markets.

Transportation and Communication Breakthroughs

Transportation and communication underwent transformative changes, shrinking distances and fostering global interconnectedness. The construction of railways and the steam locomotive revolutionized travel and commerce, enabling faster movement of goods and people. Similarly, the telegraph, patented by Samuel Morse, allowed for instantaneous communication over long distances, laying the groundwork for the modern connected world.

Environmental and Global Implications

The Industrial Revolution had profound environmental impacts, with increased pollution and resource exploitation becoming notable concerns. The reliance on coal and the expansion of industries contributed to air and water pollution, foreshadowing contemporary environmental challenges. Globally, the revolution catalyzed industrialization in other countries, altering global trade patterns and establishing new economic hierarchies.

Cultural and Intellectual Responses

The Industrial Revolution also sparked a rich cultural and intellectual response, inspiring movements such as Romanticism, which critiqued the era’s industrialization and its disconnect from nature. Philosophers and economists, including Karl Marx and Adam Smith, analyzed its implications on class relations and economic systems, offering divergent perspectives on industrial capitalism.

The Second Industrial Revolution

Following the initial wave of industrialization, a Second Industrial Revolution emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by further technological advancements in steel production, electricity, and chemical processes. Innovations such as the internal combustion engine and the harnessing of electricity for lighting and motors opened new avenues for industrial and societal development.

Challenges and Reforms

The Industrial Revolution’s darker facets, such as exploitative labor practices and environmental degradation, elicited calls for reform. The establishment of labor unions and the enactment of laws to improve working conditions and limit child labor were critical steps towards addressing these issues. These reforms laid the groundwork for modern labor rights and environmental consciousness.

Legacy and Continuing Influence

The legacy of the Industrial Revolution is enduring, laying the foundations for modern industrial society and shaping the contemporary world. Its innovations spurred continuous technological progress, setting the stage for the information age and the current technological revolution. Moreover, it has left lasting imprints on societal structures, economic practices, and global relations.

In conclusion, The Industrial Revolution was not merely a period of technological innovation; it was a profound transformation that redefined human society, economy, and the environment. Its multifaceted impacts, from spurring economic growth and global interconnectedness to introducing social challenges and environmental concerns, underscore its complexity and significance. As students delve into the intricacies of the Industrial Revolution, they uncover the roots of modern society and the ongoing evolution shaped by this pivotal era in human history. This exploration not only enriches their understanding of the past but also offers valuable lessons for addressing the challenges and opportunities of the future.

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The industrial revolution: past and future.

May 1, 2004

Article Highlights

Industrial revolutions spark unprecedented population and production growth

Global growth rates and income inequality temporary

Poverty reduced best when poor nations discover productive potential

We live in a world of staggering and unprecedented income inequality. Production per person in the wealthiest economy, the United States, is something like 15 times production per person in the poorest economies of Africa and South Asia. Since the end of the European colonial age, in the 1950s and ’60s, the economies of South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong have been transformed from among the very poorest in the world to middle-income societies with a living standard about one-third of America’s or higher. In other economies, many of them no worse off in 1960 than these East Asian “miracle” economies were, large fractions of the population still live in feudal sectors with incomes only slightly above subsistence levels. How are we to interpret these successes and failures?

Economists, today, are divided on many aspects of this question, but I think that if we look at the right evidence, organized in the right way, we can get very close to a coherent and reliable view of the changes in the wealth of nations that have occurred in the last two centuries and those that are likely to occur in this one. The Asian miracles are only one chapter in the larger story of the world economy since World War II, and that story in turn is only one chapter in the history of the industrial revolution. I will set out what I see as the main facts of the economic history of the recent past, with a minimum of theoretical interpretation, and try to see what they suggest about the future of the world economy. I do not think we can understand the contemporary world without understanding the events that have given rise to it.

I will begin and end with numbers, starting with an attempt to give a quantitative picture of the world economy in the postwar period, of the growth of population and production since 1950. Next, I will turn to the economic history of the world up to about 1750 or 1800, in other words, the economic history known to Adam Smith, David Ricardo and the other thinkers who have helped us form our vision of how the world works. Third, I will sketch what I see as the main features of the initial phase of the industrial revolution, the years from 1800 to the end of the colonial age in 1950. Following these historical reviews, I will outline a theoretical structure roughly consistent with the facts. If I succeed in doing this well, it may be possible to conclude with some useful generalizations and some assessments of the world’s future economic prospects.

The world economy in the postwar period

Today, most economies enjoy sustained growth in average real incomes as a matter of course. Living standards in all economies in the world 300 years ago were more or less equal to one another and more or less constant over time. Following common practice, I use the term industrial revolution to refer to this change in the human condition, although the modifier industrial is slightly outmoded, and I do not intend to single out iron and steel or other heavy industry, or even manufacturing in general, as being of special importance. By a country’s average real income, I mean simply its gross domestic product (GDP) in constant dollars divided by its population. Although I will touch on other aspects of society, my focus will be on economic success, as measured by population and production.

Our knowledge of production and living standards at various places and times has grown enormously in the past few decades. The most recent empirical contribution, one of the very first importance, is the Penn World Table project conducted by Robert Summers and Alan Heston. 1 This readily available, conveniently organized data set contains population and production data on every country in the world from about 1950 or 1960 (depending on the country) to the present. The availability of this marvelous body of data has given the recent revival of mathematical growth theory an explicitly empirical character that is quite different from the more purely theoretical investigations of the 1960s. It has also stimulated a more universal, ambitious style of theorizing aimed at providing a unified account of the behavior of rich and poor societies alike.

As a result of the Penn project, we now have a reliable picture of production in the entire world, both rich and poor countries. Let us review the main features of this picture, beginning with population estimates. Over the 40-year period from 1960 through 2000, world population grew from about 3 billion to 6.1 billion, or at an annual rate of 1.7 percent. These numbers are often cited with alarm, and obviously the number of people in the world cannot possibly grow at 2 percent per year forever. But many exponents of what a friend of mine calls the “economics of gloom” go beyond this truism to suggest that population growth is outstripping available resources, that the human race is blindly multiplying itself toward poverty and starvation. This is simply nonsense.

There is, to be sure, much poverty and starvation in the world, but nothing could be further from the truth than the idea that poverty is increasing. Over the same period during which population has grown from 3 billion to 6.1 billion, total world production has grown much faster than population, from $6.5 trillion in 1960 to $31 trillion in 2000. (All the dollar magnitudes I cite, from the Penn World Table or any other source, will be in units of 1985 U.S. dollars.) That is, world production was nearly multiplied by five over this 40-year period, growing at an annual rate of 4 percent. Production per person—real income—thus grew at 2.3 percent per year, which is to say that the living standard of the average world citizen more than doubled. Please understand: I am not quoting figures for the advanced economies or for a handful of economic miracles. I am not excluding Africa or the communist countries. These are numbers for the world as a whole. The entire human race is getting rich, at historically unprecedented rates. The economic miracles of East Asia are, of course, atypical in their magnitudes, but economic growth is not the exception in the world today: It is the rule.

Average figures like these mask diversity, of course. Figure 1 shows one way to use the information in the Penn World Table to summarize the distribution of the levels and growth rates of population and per capita incomes in the postwar world. It contains two bar graphs of per capita incomes, one for 1960 and the other for 1990 (not 2000). The horizontal axis is GDP per capita, in thousands of dollars. The vertical axis is population. The height of each bar is proportional to the number of people in the world with average incomes in the indicated range, based on the assumption (though, of course, it is false) that everyone in a country has that country’s average income. The figure shows that the number of people (not just the fraction) in countries with mean incomes below $1,100 has declined between 1960 and 1990. The entire world income distribution has shifted to the right, without much change in the degree of income inequality, since 1960. At the end of the period, as at the beginning, the degree of inequality is enormous. The poorest countries in 1990 have per capita incomes of around $1,000 per year compared to the U.S. average of $18,000: a factor of 18. This degree of inequality between the richest and poorest societies is without precedent in human history, as is the growth in population and living standards in the postwar period.

A great deal of recent empirical work focuses on the question of whether per capita incomes are converging to a common (growing) level, or possibly diverging. From Figure 1 it is evident that this is a fairly subtle question. In any case, it seems obvious that we are not going to learn much about the economic future of the world by simple statistical extrapolation of events from 1960 to 1990, however it is carried out. Extrapolating the 2 percent population growth rate backward from 1960, one would conclude that Adam and Eve were expelled from the garden in about the year 1000. Extrapolating the 2.2 rate of per capita income growth backward, one would infer that people in 1800 subsisted on less than $100 per year. Extrapolating forward leads to predictions that the earth’s water supply (or supply of anything else) will be exhausted in a finite period. Such exercises make it clear that the years since 1960 are part of a period of transition, but from what to what? Let us turn to history for half the answer to this question.

Comparison to earlier centuries

The striking thing about postwar economic growth is how recent such growth is. I have said that total world production has been growing at over 4 percent since 1960. Compare this to annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century. 2 For these years, the growth in both population and production was far lower than in modern times. Moreover, it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year. But how do we know this? After all, the Penn World Tables don’t cover the Roman Empire or the Han Dynasty. But there are many other sources of information.

In the front hall of my apartment in Chicago there is a painting of an agricultural scene, a gift from a Korean student of mine. In the painting, a farmer is plowing his field behind an ox. Fruit trees are flowering, and mountains rise in the background. The scene is peaceful, inspiring nostalgia for the old days (though I do not know when the painting was done or what time period it depicts). There is also much information for an economist in this picture. It is not difficult to estimate the income of this farmer, for we know about how much land one farmer and his ox can care for, about how much can be grown on this land, how much fruit the little orchard will yield and how much the production would be worth in 1985 U.S. dollar prices. This farmer’s income is about $2,000 per year. Moreover, we know that up until recent decades, almost all of the Korean workforce (well over 90 percent) was engaged in traditional agriculture, so this figure of $2,000 ($500 per capita) for the farmer, his wife and his two children must be pretty close to the per capita income for the country as a whole. True, we do not have sophisticated national income and product accounts for Korea 100 years ago, but we don’t need them to arrive at fairly good estimates of living standards that prevailed back then. Traditional agricultural societies are very like one another, all over the world, and the standard of living they yield is not hard to estimate reliably.

Other, more systematic, information is also available. For poor societies—all societies before about 1800—we can reliably estimate income per capita using the idea that average living standards of most historical societies must have been very near the estimated per capita production figures of the poorest contemporary societies. Incomes in, say, ancient China cannot have been much lower than incomes in 1960 China and still sustained stable or growing populations. And if incomes in any part of the world in any time period had been much larger than the levels of the poor countries of today—a factor of two, say—we would have heard about it. If such enormous percentage differences had ever existed, they would have made some kind of appearance in the available accounts of the historically curious, from Herodotus to Marco Polo to Adam Smith.

How then did these traditional societies support the vast accomplishments of the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome, of China and India? Obviously, not everyone in these societies was living on $600 per year. The answer lies in the role and wealth of landowners, who receive about 30 percent to 40 percent of agricultural income. A nation of 10 million people with a per capita production of $600 per year has a total income of $6 billion. Thirty percent of $6 billion is $1.8 billion. In the hands of a small elite, this kind of money can support a fairly lavish lifestyle or build impressive temples or subsidize many artists and intellectuals. As we know from many historical examples, traditional agricultural society can support an impressive civilization. What it cannot do is generate improvement in the living standards of masses of people. The Korean farmer plowing his field in the painting in my hallway could be in any century in the last 1,000 years. Nothing in the picture would need to be changed to register the passage of the centuries.

If the living standard in traditional economies was low, it was at least fairly equally low across various societies. Even at the beginning of the age of European colonialism, the dominance of Europe was military, not economic. When the conquistadors of Spain took control of the societies of the Incas and the Aztecs, it was not a confrontation between a rich society and a poor one. In the 16th century, living standards in Europe and the Americas were about the same. Indeed, Spanish observers of the time marveled at the variety and quality of goods that were offered for sale in the markets of Mexico. Smith, Ricardo and their contemporaries argued about differences in living standards, and perhaps their discussions can be taken to refer to income differences as large as a factor of two. But nothing remotely like the income differences of our current world, differences on the order of a factor of 25, existed in 1800 or at any earlier time. Such inequality is a product of the industrial revolution.

The beginnings of the industrial revolution

Traditional society was characterized by stable per capita income. Our own world is one of accelerating income growth. The course of the industrial revolution, our term for the transition from stable to accelerating growth, is illustrated in Figure 2, which plots total world population and production from the year 1000 up to the present. I use a logarithmic scale rather than natural units, so that a constant rate of growth would imply a straight line. One can see from the figure that the growth rates of both population and production are increasing over time. The vertical scale is millions of persons (for population) and billions of 1985 U.S. dollars (for production). The difference between the two curves is about constant up until 1800, reflecting the assumption that production per person was roughly constant prior to that date. Then in the 19th century, growth in both series accelerates dramatically, and production growth accelerates more. By 1900 the two curves cross, at which time world income per capita was $1,000 per year. The growth and indeed the acceleration of both population and production continue to the present.

Of course, the industrial revolution did not affect all parts of the world uniformly, nor is it doing so today. Figure 3, based on per capita income data estimated as I have discussed, is one way of illustrating the origins and the diffusion of the industrial revolution. To construct the figure, the countries (or regions) of the world were organized into five groups, ordered by their current per capita income levels. Group I—basically, the English-speaking countries—are those in which per capita incomes first exhibited sustained growth. Group II is Japan, isolated only because I want to highlight its remarkable economic history. Group III consists of northwest Europe, the countries that began sustained growth somewhat later than Group I. Group IV is the rest of Europe, together with European-dominated economies in Latin America. Group V contains the rest of Asia and Africa.

As shown in Figure 3, per capita incomes were approximately constant, over space and time, over the period 1750–1800, at a level of something like $600 to $700. Here and below, the modifier “approximately” must be taken to mean plus or minus $200. Following the reasoning I have advanced above, $600 is taken as an estimate of living standards in all societies prior to 1750, so there would be no interest in extending Figure 3 to the left. The numbers at the right of Figure 3 indicate the 1990 populations, in millions of people, for the five groups of countries. About two-thirds of the world’s people live in Group V, which contains all of Africa and Asia except Japan.

Reading Figure 3 from left to right, we can see the emergence over the last two centuries of the inequality displayed in Figure 1. By 1850 there was something like a factor of two difference between the English-speaking countries and the poor countries of Africa and Asia. By 1900, a difference of perhaps a factor of six had emerged. At that time, the rest of Europe was still far behind England and America, and Japanese incomes were scarcely distinguishable from incomes in the rest of Asia. In the first half of the 20th century, the inequality present in 1900 was simply magnified. The English-speaking countries gained relative to northern Europe, which in turn gained on the rest of Europe and Asia. Notice, too, that per capita income in what I have called Group V, the African and Asian countries, remained constant at around $600 up to 1950. The entire colonial era was a period of stagnation in the living standards of masses of people. European imperialism brought advances in technology to much of the colonized world, and these advances led to increases in production that could, as in British India, be impressive. But the outcome of colonial economic growth was larger populations, not higher living standards.

In the period since 1950, the pattern of world growth has begun to change character, as well as to accelerate dramatically. What was at first thought to be the postwar recovery of continental Europe and of Japan turned out to be the European and Japanese miracles, taking these countries far beyond their prewar living standards to levels comparable to the United States. (There are some miracles in my Group IV, too— Italy and Spain—that are not seen on the figure because they are averaged in with Latin America and the communist world.) The second major change in the postwar world is the beginning of per capita income growth in Africa and Asia, entirely a post-colonial phenomenon. The industrial revolution has begun to diffuse to the non-European world, and this, of course, is the main reason that postwar growth rates for the world as a whole have attained such unprecedented levels.

Figure 4 provides a rough description of the demographic transitions since 1750 that have occurred and are still occurring. The figure exhibits five plotted curves, one for each country group. Each curve connects 10 points, corresponding to the time periods beginning in 1750 and ending in 1990, as indicated at the bottom of Figure 3. (Note that the periods are not of equal length.) Each point plots the group’s average rate of population growth for that period against its per capita income at the beginning of the period. The per capita GDP figures in 1750 can just be read off Figure 3, from which it is clear that they are about $600 for all five groups. Population growth rates in 1750 average about 0.4 percent and are well below 1 percent for all five groups. For each group, one can see a nearly vertical increase in population growth rates with little increase in GDP per capita, corresponding to the onset of industrialization. This, of course, is precisely the response to technological advance that Malthus and Ricardo told us to expect. Then, in groups I to IV a maximum is reached, and as incomes continue to rise, population growth rates decline. In group V—most of Asia and Africa—the curve has only leveled off, but does anyone doubt that these regions will follow the path that the rest of the world has already worn?

Theoretical responses

I have brought the story of the industrial revolution up to the present. Where are we going from here? For this, we need a theory of growth, a system of equations that makes economic sense and that fits the facts I have just reviewed. There is a tremendous amount of very promising research now occurring in economics, trying to construct such a system, and in a few years we will be able to run these equations into the future and see how it will look. Now, though, I think it is accurate to say that we have not one but two theories of production: one consistent with the main features of the world economy prior to the industrial revolution and another roughly consistent with the behavior of the advanced economies today. What we need is an understanding of the transition.

One of these successful theories is the product of Smith, Ricardo, Malthus and the other classical economists. The world they undertook to explain was the world on the eve of the industrial revolution, and it could not have occurred to them that economic theory should seek to explain sustained, exponential growth in living standards. Their theory is consistent with the following stylized view of economic history up to around 1800. Labor and resources combine to produce goods—largely food, in poor societies—that sustain life and reproduction. Over time, providence and human ingenuity make it possible for given amounts of labor and resources to produce more goods than they could before. The resulting increases in production per person stimulate fertility and increases in population, up to the point where the original standard of living is restored. Such dynamics, operating over the centuries, account for the gradually accelerating increase in the human population and the distribution of that population over the regions of the earth in a way that is consistent with the approximate constancy of living standards everywhere. The model predicts that the living standards of working people are maintained at a roughly constant, “subsistence” level, but with realistic shares of income going to landowners, the theory is consistent as well with high civilization based on large concentrations of wealth.

This classical theory is not inconsistent with the enormous improvements in knowledge relevant to productivity that occurred long before the 18th century, improvements that supported huge population increases and vast wealth for owners of land and other resources. Increases in knowledge over the centuries also stimulated a large-scale accumulation of productive capital: shipbuilding, road and harbor construction, draining of swamps, and breeding and raising of animal herds for food and power. Capital accumulation, too, played a role in supporting ever larger populations. Yet under the Malthusian theory of fertility, neither new knowledge nor the capital accumulation it makes profitable is enough to induce the sustained growth in living standards of masses of people that modern economists take as the defining characteristic of the industrial revolution.

The modern theory of sustained income growth, stemming from the work of Robert Solow in the 1950s, was designed to fit the behavior of the economies that had passed through the demographic transition. 3 This theory deals with the problem posed by Malthusian fertility by simply ignoring the economics of the problem and assuming a fixed rate of population growth. In such a context, the accumulation of physical capital is not, in itself, sufficient to account for sustained income growth. With a fixed rate of labor force growth, the law of diminishing returns puts a limit on the income increase that capital accumulation can generate. To account for sustained growth, the modern theory needs to postulate continuous improvements in technology or in knowledge or in human capital (I think these are all just different terms for the same thing) as an “engine of growth.” Since such a postulate is consistent with the evidence we have from the modern (and the ancient) world, this does not seem to be a liability of the theory.

The modern theory, based on fixed fertility, and the classical theory, based on fertility that increases with increases in income, are obviously not mutually consistent. Nor can we simply say that the modern theory fits the modern world and the classical theory the ancient world, because we can see traditional societies exhibiting Malthusian behavior in the world today. Increases since 1960 in total production in Africa, for example, have been almost entirely absorbed by increases in population, with negligible increases in income per capita. Understanding the progress of the industrial revolution as it continues today necessarily entails understanding why it is that Malthusian dynamics have ceased to hold in much of the contemporary world. Country after country has gone through a demographic transition, involving increases in the rate of population growth followed by decreases, as income continues to rise. Some of the wealthiest countries—Japan and parts of Europe—are just about maintaining their populations at current levels. People in these wealthy economies are better able to afford large families than people in poor economies, yet they choose not to do so.

If these two inconsistent theories are to be reconciled, with each other and with the facts of the demographic transition, a second factor needs to work to decrease fertility as income grows, operating alongside the Malthusian force that works to increase it. Gary Becker proposed long ago that this second factor be identified with the quality of children: As family income rises, spending on children increases, as assumed in Malthusian theory, but these increases can take the form of a greater number of children or of a larger allocation of parental time and other resources to each child. Parents are assumed to value increases both in the quantity of children and in the quality of each child’s life. 4

Of course, both the quality-quantity trade-off in Becker’s sense and the importance of human capital are visible well before the industrial revolution. In any society with established property rights, a class of landowners will be subject to different population dynamics due to the effect their fertility has on inheritances and the quality of lives their children enjoy. Such families can accumulate vast wealth and enjoy living standards far above subsistence. For the histories of what we call civilization, this deviation from a pure Malthusian subsistence model is everything. For the history of living standards of masses of people, however, it is but a minor qualification. Similarly, in any society of any complexity, some individuals can, by virtue of talent and education, formal or informal, acquire skills that yield high income, and as the Bachs and the Mozarts can testify, such exceptions can run in families. For most societies, though, income increases due to what a modern economist calls human capital are exceptional and often derivative, economically, from landowner wealth.

For a landless family in a traditional agricultural economy, the possibilities for affecting the quality of children’s lives are pretty slight. If there is no property to pass on, an additional child does not dilute the inheritance of siblings. Parents could spend time and resources on the child’s education in the attempt to leave a bequest of human capital. All parents do this to some degree, but the incentives to do so obviously depend on the return to human capital offered by the society the parents live in. Where this return is low, adding the quality dimension to the fertility decision may be only a minor twist on Malthusian dynamics. In short, neither the possibility of using inheritable capital to improve the quality of children’s lives nor the possibility of accumulating human capital needs to result in fundamental departures from the predictions of the classical model.

But these additional features do offer the possibility of non-Malthusian dynamics, and the possibility has promise because the process of industrialization seems to involve a dramatic increase in the returns to human capital. People are moving out of traditional agriculture, where the necessary adult skills can be acquired through on-the-job child labor. More and more people are entering occupations different from their parents’ occupations that require skills learned in school as well as those learned at home. New kinds of capital goods require workers with the training to operate and to improve upon them. In such a world a parent can do many things with time and resources that will give a child advantages in a changing economy, and the fewer children a parent has, the more such advantages can be given to each child.

It is a unique feature of human capital that it yields returns that cannot be captured entirely by its “owner.” Bach and Mozart were well paid (though neither as well as he thought he deserved), but both of them provided enormous stimulation and inspiration to others for which they were paid nothing, just as both of them also gained from others. Such external effects , as economists call them, are the subject matter of intellectual and artistic history and should be the main subject of industrial and commercial history as well. These pervasive external effects introduce a kind of feedback into human capital theory: Something that increases the return on human capital will stimulate greater accumulation, in turn stimulating higher returns, stimulating still greater accumulation and so on.

On this general view of economic growth, then, what began in England in the 18th century and continues to diffuse throughout the world today is something like the following. Technological advances occurred that increased the wages of those with the skills needed to make economic use of these advances. These wage effects stimulated others to accumulate skills and stimulated many families to decide against having a large number of unskilled children and in favor of having fewer children, with more time and resources invested in each. The presence of a higher-skilled workforce increased still further the return to acquiring skills, keeping the process going. Wouldn’t such a process bog down due to diminishing returns to skill-intensive goods? Someone has to dig potatoes, after all. It might, and I imagine that many incipient industrial revolutions died prematurely due to such diminishing returns. But international trade undoubtedly helped England attain critical mass by letting English workers specialize in skill-demanding production while potatoes were imported from somewhere else.

Whatever the importance of human capital accumulation in the original industrial revolution, there is no doubt that rapid improvement in skills is characteristic of its diffusion in the modern world economy. Nancy Stokey estimates that the major stimulus of the North American Free Trade Agreement to economic growth in Mexico will be not the inflow of physical capital (though that is considerable), but the increased accumulation of human capital that will be stimulated by the higher rate of return the new physical capital will induce. 5 Post-NAFTA Mexico is increasingly an economy that assigns high rewards to training and technological skills.

Generalizations from experience

Economically, the 60 years since the end of World War II have been an extraordinary period. The growth rates of world population, production and incomes per capita have reached unprecedented heights. As a result of the combination of poor countries with very little income growth and wealthy countries with sustained growth, the degree of income inequality across societies has reached unprecedented levels. None of this can persist. This, I think, is the main lesson of the broader history of the industrial revolution, as viewed by modern growth theory.

I have interpreted this period as the beginning of the phase of the diffusion of the sustained economic growth that characterizes the European industrial revolution to the former colonies of the non-European world. The rapid growth of non-European nations (and some of the poorer European ones) is mainly responsible for the extraordinarily rapid growth of world production in the postwar era. But enough other societies have been largely left out of this process of diffusion that the degree of inequality among nations remained about the same in 1990 as it was in 1960. As those economies that have joined the modern world catch up to the income levels of the wealthiest countries, their growth rates of both population and income will slow down to rates that are close to those that now prevail in Europe. We have seen these events occur in Japan; they will follow in country after country.

At the same time, countries that have been kept out of this process of diffusion by socialist planning or simply by corruption and lawlessness will, one after another, join the industrial revolution and become the miracle economies of the future. The income growth rates in these catch-up economies may be very high, but as fewer and fewer countries remain in this category, the effect on world averages will shrink. If so, then world population growth will attain a peak and begin shrinking toward less than 1 percent, and world production growth will similarly cease to rise and will fall back toward 3 percent. In other words, we will see a world that, economically, looks more and more like the United States.

What do history and economic theory have to say about factors that will accelerate this process of catching up? What policies for Pakistan or Nigeria would materially affect the likelihood of an economic miracle? For backward economies, dealing on a day-to-day basis with more advanced economies is the central element in success. No successes have been observed for autarchic, produce-everything-ourselves strategies (though such strategies can possibly work well for a few years: think of Russia in the 1920s or India in the 1950s). Trade has the benefit of letting a smaller country’s industries attain efficient scale, but I think an even more important factor is the need to get up to world standards, to learn to play in the big leagues. The only way learning and technology transfer can take place is for producers to compete seriously internationally. Learning-by-doing is perhaps the most important form of human capital accumulation.

Macroeconomic policy, however, does not appear to be of central importance to growth. Korea, Brazil and Indonesia have all enjoyed rapid growth under inflationary policies (though others—Argentina, Chile and, again, Brazil—have had the opposite experience). Of course, in all these cases, inflation has arisen from monetary expansion to cover fiscal deficits. Certainly, I do not want to endorse inflation—it is an unnecessary waste of resources with no positive side effects—but this seems to be a largely separate issue from growth. It is always a mistake to think of everything as interconnected (though, of course, everything is, in some sense): I think it is more fruitful to break a problem down into manageable pieces and address the pieces one at a time.

Of the tendencies that are harmful to sound economics, the most seductive, and in my opinion the most poisonous, is to focus on questions of distribution. In this very minute, a child is being born to an American family and another child, equally valued by God, is being born to a family in India. The resources of all kinds that will be at the disposal of this new American will be on the order of 15 times the resources available to his Indian brother. This seems to us a terrible wrong, justifying direct corrective action, and perhaps some actions of this kind can and should be taken. But of the vast increase in the well-being of hundreds of millions of people that has occurred in the 200-year course of the industrial revolution to date, virtually none of it can be attributed to the direct redistribution of resources from rich to poor. The potential for improving the lives of poor people by finding different ways of distributing current production is nothing compared to the apparently limitless potential of increasing production.

Recommendations for Further Reading

For a good introduction to the way economists today are using theory to measure the importance of different sources of economic growth, see Stephen L. Parente and Edward C. Prescott, Barriers to Riches (Cambridge: MIT Press), 2000. I’ve used this book in class at Chicago, with good success. My students also enjoyed the more anecdotal treatment in William Easterly, The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics (Cambridge: MIT Press), 2002. [See review in the September 2003 Region .]

Michael Kremer’s 1993 paper “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (107: 681–716) stimulated everyone who thinks about economic growth. So did Lant Pritchett’s “Divergence, Big Time” in the 1997 Journal of Economic Perspectives (11: 3–18) and Jeffrey D. Sachs and Andrew Warner, “Economic Reform and the Process of Global Integration,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity , (1995): 1–118. Though published in professional journals, all of these papers have much to offer the nontechnical reader.

—Robert Lucas

1 A good description is available in: Robert Summers and Alan Heston, “The Penn World Table (Mark 5): An Expanded Set of International Comparisons, 1950–1988.” Quarterly Journal of Economics , 105 (1991): 327–368. The latest versions of the tables are available at pwt.econ.upenn.edu .

2 The sources for these and many other figures cited in this section are given in Chapter 5 of my Lectures on Economic Growth (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 2002.

3 Robert M. Solow, “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth.” Quarterly Journal of Economics , 70 (1956): 65–94.

4 Gary S. Becker, “An Economic Analysis of Fertility.” In Richard Easterlin, ed., Demographic and Economic Change in Developed Countries . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960. See also Robert J. Barro and Gary S. Becker, “Fertility Choice in a Model of Economic Growth.” Econometrica , 57 (1989): 481–501.

5 Nancy L. Stokey. “Free Trade, Factor Returns, and Factor Accumulation.” Journal of Economic Growth , 1 (1996): 421–448.

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Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution

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Children were widely used as labour in factories, mines, and agriculture during the British Industrial Revolution (1760-1840). Very often working the same 12-hour shifts that adults did, children as young as five years old were paid a pittance to climb under dangerous weaving machines, move coal through narrow mine shafts, and work in agricultural gangs.

It was very often the case that children's jobs were well-defined and specific to them, in other words, child labour was not merely an extra help for the adult workforce. The education of many children was replaced by a working day, a choice often made by parents to supplement a meagre family income. It was not until the 1820s that governments began to pass laws that restricted working hours and business owners were compelled to provide safer working conditions for everyone, men, women , and children. Even then a lack of inspectors meant many abuses still went on, a situation noted and publicised by charities, philanthropists, and authors with a social conscience like Charles Dickens (1812-1870).

A Lack of Education

As sending a child to school involved paying a fee – even the cheapest asked for a penny a day – most parents did not bother. Villages often had a small school, where each pupil's parents paid the teacher, but attendance was sometimes erratic and more often than not the education rudimentary in hopelessly overcrowded classes. There were some free schools run by charities, and churches often offered Sunday school. Not until 1844 were there more free schools available, such as the Ragged schools established by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury (1801-1885). These schools concentrated on the basics, what became known as the 3 Rs of Reading, Writing , and Arithmetic. Compulsory education for 5 to 12-year-olds, and the institutions necessary to provide it, would not come along until the 1870s. Consequently, "at least half of nominally school-age children worked full-time during the industrial revolution " (Horn, 57).

Some factory owners were more generous than others to the children in their employ. An example is the Quarry Bank Mill in Styal in the county of Cheshire. Here the owner provided schooling after the long working day was over for 100 of its child workers in a dedicated building, the Apprentice House.

An indicator of better education, despite all the difficulties, is literacy rates, rather imperfectly measured by historians by recording the ability of a person to sign one's name on official documents such as marriage certificates. There was a great improvement in literacy, but by 1800, still only half of the adult population could sign their name to such documents.

For those children who could find work in the Industrial Revolution, and there were employers queueing up to offer it, there were no trade unions to protect them. For the vast majority of children, working life started at an early age – on average at 8 years old – but as nobody really cared about age, this could vary wildly. Working involved at best tedium and at worst an endless round of threats, fines, corporal punishment, and instant dismissal at any protest to such treatment. In one survey taken in 1833, it was found that the tactics used with child labourers were 95% negative. Instant dismissal accounted for 58%. In only 4% of cases was a reward given for good work, and a mere 1% of the strategies used involved a promotion or pay rise.

Traditional Child Work

In the traditional cottage industry of handweaving, children had always washed and carded raw wool so that their mother could spin it on a spinning wheel, which then was woven into fabric by the father using a handloom. Craftworkers often took on an apprentice or two. Apprentices were given their board and lodgings and taught a particular trade by their master. In return, the child not only worked for free but was expected to pay a large fee upfront before starting a contract that could last a year or several years or even up to seven years, depending on the trade. Then there were children who worked in their parents' or relations' small businesses, such as small-scale manufacturers like basket-weavers, blacksmiths, and potters.

Children worked in agriculture, still a significant area during the Industrial Revolution and one which involved 35% of Britain 's total workforce in 1800. Children, as they always had done, continued to tend herds of animals and flocks of fowl, and they essentially performed any task required that they were physically capable of. Many children joined agricultural gangs which moved around to where there was temporary or seasonal employment.

Children in Mines

Men, women, and children worked in Britain's mines, particularly in the coal mines, which boomed as they produced the fuel to feed the steam engines of the Industrial Revolution. All three groups had been involved in mining before the arrival of machines, but the industry's expansion meant that many more were now involved than previously. Children as young as five years old were found useful by mine owners since they were small enough to climb into narrow ventilation shafts where they could ensure that trapdoors were regularly opened and shut. Testimony like James Pearce's in 1842 was common:

I am 12 years of age. I went down to the pits about 7 years and a half to open doors. I had a candle and a fire beside me to show me light…I was 12 hours a-day, and got 6d a day. I attended and got the money. When I was paid I took it home to my mother. I was a year and a half at this work. I once fell asleep and was well threshed by a driver. (Shelley, 42)

Most children, as they got older, were then employed to either shift the coal from the working level to the surface or to sort it out from other debris before it was shipped away. Those who pulled the coal in carts using a harness were known as 'hurriers', and those who pushed were 'thrusters'. This was back-breaking work detrimental to the child's physical development. Many parents were not opposed to their children working, despite the health hazards, since they brought in much-needed earnings for the family. In addition, over half of the children working in mines kept their employment when they reached adulthood, so it was a good route to secure a job for life. From 1800 to 1850, children composed between 20-50% of the mining workforce.

The consequence of working at such an early age was that most children employed in mines never had more than three years of schooling. Children very often suffered health problems from the physical hard work and long, 12-hour shifts. Breathing in coal dust year after year caused many to develop lung diseases later in life. As the historian S. Yorke emphatically notes, "The coal mining industry must represent one of the worst exploitations of men, women and children ever to have taken place in Britain" (98).

Children in Factories

Factories with new steam-powered machines like power looms were the great development of the Industrial Revolution, but they came at a cost. These places, especially the textile mills, were dark and noisy, and they were deliberately kept damp so that the cotton threads were more supple and less likely to break. The new mechanization of manufacturing meant that few skills were needed anymore for the basic workforce. Children were required to go under the machines to clear up cotton waste for reuse or to repair broken threads or remove blockages from the machinery. This was often dangerous work as the machines could be unpredictable. A massive weaving machine might come to a crashing halt with heavy parts falling down and movable pieces like spindles flying around like bullets.

In the factories, children worked, just like the adults around them, long 12-hour shifts six days a week. 12 hours nicely split the day in two for employers. As the machines were operated 24 hours a day, one child would return to a warm bed after work as the occupant rolled out to start their own shift, a practice known as 'hot bedding'. Children were the cheapest labour to be found, and employers were not slow to use them. A child worker was about 80% cheaper than a man and 50% cheaper than a woman. Children had the advantage of having nimble fingers and smaller bodies that could get into places and under machinery that adults could not. They could also be bullied and threatened by supervisors much more easily than an adult, and they could not fight back.

Children were also apprenticed to factory owners in a system similar to indenture. Parents were given money by their parish to allow their children to work in factories. The practice was common, and it was not until 1816 that a limit was put on how far away the children were required to work – 64 km (40 mi).

Children made up around one-third of the workforce in Britain's factories. In 1832, as the Industrial Revolution reached its final decade, these children were still subject to appalling working conditions in factories, as here described by the MP Michael Sadler, who pressed for reform:

Even, at this moment, while I am thus speaking on behalf of these oppressed children, what numbers of them are still at their toil, confined to heated rooms, bathed in perspiration, stunned with the roar of revolving wheels, poisoned with the noxious effluvia of grease and gas, til at last, weary and exhausted, they turn out almost naked, plunge into the inclement air, and creep shivering to beds from which a relay of their young work-fellows have just risen; and such is the fate of many of them at the best while in numbers of instances, they are diseased, stunted, crippled, depraved, destroyed. (Shelley, 18)

The Poor & Orphans

Children without homes and a paid position elsewhere were, if boys, often trained to become a Shoe Black, that is someone who shined shoes in the street. These paupers were given this opportunity by charitable organisations so that they would not have to go to the infamous workhouse. The workhouse was brought into existence in 1834 and was deliberately intended to be such an awful place that it did little more than keep its inhabitants alive in the belief that any more charity than that would simply encourage the poor not to bother looking for paid work. The workhouse involved what its name suggests – work, but it was tedious work indeed, typically unpleasant and repetitive tasks like crushing bones to make glue or cleaning the workhouse itself. No wonder, then, given the squalid life in the workhouse, that many children worked in factories and mines.

Government Labour Reforms

Eventually, governments did what the fledgling trade unions had struggled to achieve, and from the 1830s, the situation for workers in factories and mines, including for children, began to slowly improve. Previously, governments had always been reluctant to restrict trade in principle, preferring a laissez-faire approach to economics. It did not help that many members of Parliament were themselves large-scale employers. Nevertheless, several acts of Parliament were passed to try, although not always successfully, to limit employers' exploitation of their workforce and lay down minimum standards.

The first industry to receive restrictions on worker exploitation was the cotton industry, but soon the new laws applied to workers of any kind. The 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act stipulated that child apprentices should not work more than 12 hours a day, they must be given a basic education, and they must attend church services no fewer than two times each month. More acts followed, and this time they applied to all working children. The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act limited work to children 9 years or over, and they could not work for more than 12 hours per day if under 16 years of age. Possible working hours for children were established as between 6 a.m. and 9 p.m. The 1833 Factory Act stipulated that children in any industry could not be legally employed under 9 years of age and could not be asked to work for more than 8 hours each day if aged 9 to 13, or no more than 12 hours each day if aged between 14 and 18. The same act prohibited all children from working at night and made it obligatory for children to attend a minimum of two hours of education each day.

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Although there were many abuses of the new regulations, there were government inspectors tasked with ensuring they were followed. These officials could demand, for example, age certificates for any child employee or a certificate from a schoolmaster that the required number of hours of education had been given to a specific child.

Progressive changes followed the earlier acts. The 1842 Mines Act stipulated that no child under 10 years of age could be employed in underground work. The 1844 Factory Act limited anyone's working day to 12 hours, dangerous machines had to be placed in a separate workspace, and sanitary regulations were imposed on employers. The 1847 Factory Act further limited the working day to a maximum of 10 hours, a reduction that campaigners had long been lobbying the government to make. There were still many abusers of the new laws, and many parents still desperately needed the extra income their working children brought, but attitudes were finally changing in wider society in regard to using children for labour.

Authors like Charles Dickens wrote such damning works as Oliver Twist (1837) that pointed out the plight of poorer children. In the moralism of the Victorian period, many people now wanted children to preserve their innocence longer and not be so early exposed to the temptations and moral pitfalls of adult life. The idea that childhood was worth keeping but could be lost if not protected saw the foundation of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in 1889. The arts continued to prick people's consciences. J. M. Barries' character of Peter Pan , which first appeared in 1901, confirmed this shifting of attitudes and the realisation and recognition that childhood was a thing of value in and of itself, a precious thing that should not be obliterated in the daily grind of mines and factories.

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Bibliography

• Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective . Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• Corey, Melinda & Ochoa, George. The Encyclopedia of the Victorian World. Henry Holt & Co, 1996.
• Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.
• Hepplewhite, Peter. Industrial Revolution. Wayland, 2016.
• Horn, Jeff. The Industrial Revolution . Greenwood, 2007.
• Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution . Cambridge University Press, 2011.
• Shelley, C et al. Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain. PEARSON SCHOOLS, 2016.

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Cartwright, M. (2023, April 12). Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2216/child-labour-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/

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4th Industrial Revolution: Essay & Important Notes

Evolution of the fourth industrial revolution.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution finds its foundations laid on the third industrial revolution. With the changing technologies and innovations being made throughout the different revolutions, the fourth revolution was bound to take place. The term Fourth Industrial Revolution was coined by Klaus Schwab, the founder and executive chairman of the World Economic Forum.

Technologies Driving Change in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

The 4 th revolution is dominated by a myriad of technologies. These include:

Artificial Intelligence

AI is being used in many ways in different aspects of life. AI can recognize complex patterns, reach voluminous information, and also take decisions on a logical basis. The advent of AI has reached a level wherein people can control appliances in their homes by just giving instructions.

Blockchain is a secure and decentralized manner of recording and sharing data. With this technology, it is possible to improve and track the supply chain, secure sensitive data, and also combat frauds. The best example of this technology being uses these days is the use of cryptocurrency.

Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality

These technologies enable people to experience anything digitally. The use of these technologies has enabled people to overcome the boundaries between the virtual and physical worlds. A good example is how many stores allow their customers to try and experiment with products before making a purchasing decision.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology has made it possible to develop new medicines and drugs to cure life-taking illnesses. These have also made it possible to process and produce cleaner and greener energy, thereby enhancing the chances of a sustainable world.

The design and use of robots for personal and commercial purposes have become commonplace these days. Robots are being used in several industries to enhance efficiency and productivity and reduce human effort.

Internet of Things

Internet of Things has made it possible to connect devices used daily with the internet. With the help of IoT, it has become easy to track different aspects of businesses and industries. An example is the use of IoT by farmers to monitor the quality of fertilizers.

Pros and Cons of Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has brought several advantages for society and businesses including:

• Increased productivity
• Improved quality of life
• Lower barriers to entrepreneurship
• New markets for businesses

However, the industrial revolution propagated by technology also has some cons too. These include:

• Inequality: The industrial revolution is beneficial for those who have access to the technologies and can use it for their benefit in the right way. People, businesses, and societies that cannot access technologies lag behind others and cannot benefit from the revolution in any manner.
• Cybersecurity risk: With the increasing technological innovations, the threat of cybercrimes has also increased. Gadgets, robots, computers, and every technology are prone to attacks by unknown people.
• Increased competition: The advent of technologies and their subsequent use in different industries and businesses has increased competition and businesses have to do more to survive the competition. Additionally, it also brings forth the issue of ethics as businesses make use of any means to survive the competition.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution radically impacts the daily life of people. The era can be that of knowledge, growth, and improvement in the manner in which people, businesses, and societies work and operates.

Important Notes

• The Fourth Industrial Revolution is dominating the society and businesses of today.
• Technological innovations have brought about changes in the way people live and carry out everyday activities.
• There are many advantages of the Fourth Industrial Revolution as it brings about improvements in the lifestyle and also improves productivity.

With the increasing use of technologies, there are issues related to ethics and unequal access to technologies

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