research topics in autism

Research articles covering work related to austism spectrum disorders are provided below.

New Imaging Technique Identifies Autism Markers with 95% Accuracy

Gender Nonconformity in Play Linked to ASD and Behavioral Problems

Early Brain Changes May Trigger Autism

Brain Overgrowth Linked to Autism Symptom Severity

AI Model Predicts Autism in Toddlers with 80% Accuracy

20% Increased ASD Risk for Kids with Autistic Siblings

BPA Exposure in Pregnancy Linked to Autism Risk

Neurodivergence Linked to Chronic Fatigue in Children

Umbilical Cord Blood Test Could Predict Autism Risk

Cancer Drug Shows Promise for Autism Cognitive Function

Healthy Prenatal Diet Linked to Lower Autism Risk

CBD and Metformin Show Promise for Autism Disorders

Tau May Protect Brain Cells from Oxidative Damage

Morphine’s Pain Relief Mechanism Unveiled

Dogs Using Soundboard Buttons Understand Words

How We Recognize Words in Real-Time

165 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Struggle with writing a research paper topics on autism? We’ve got your back covered! Below, you will find a list of 147 topics about autism as well as autism research paper examples!

🏆 Best Research Autism Topics & Essay Examples

👍 good autism essay topics, 💡 psychology research autism topics to write about, ⭐ simple & easy autism essay titles, ❓ research questions about autism.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism is a serious disorder that has the potential to disrupt the success of people living with it. This is to mean that the theory of causation regarding autism is not complete as yet.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Child At the moment, M.is more verbal with his parents and siblings and reacts adequately to them, especially in repeated day-to-day situations.
• Autism: Characteristics, Prevalence and Interventions The symptoms of autism are noticeable in the early years of childhood. Occupational therapy is one of the non-educational interventions used to assist kids with autism.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• Autism. Child and Family Assessment The other common disorder associated with autism is that of mutism whereby it also lies under the category of speech disorder and in many cases it is difficult to be diagnosed and at the same […]
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism The primary subject of this study is applied behavior analysis while the secondary subject is applied behavior analysis and its effects on autism in children.
• Critical Analysis of Published Articles: Autism It was therefore the goal of the research to find out if the negative attitude of people towards autistic children can be altered to the benefit of the parents.
• “Let Me Hear Your Voice: A Family’s Triumph Over Autism” by Catherine Maurice The book was published in 1994, and it was a success as parents of autistic children were waiting for someone to prove that autism was not an incurable disorder.
• Inclusion Curriculum for Children With Autism In the given paper, the issue of children autism, the developmental issues that autism triggers and the educational prospects for children with autism are going to be considered.
• One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and […]
• Impact of Autism Disorder on Adolescents This essay discusses the impact of autism disorder on adolescents in the community and a nursing intervention that can be used to assist adolescents in becoming prominent society members.
• Progression of Reading Ability in a Child Diagnosed With Autism The battery of assessments and interviews with parents on the participant’s socialization and early reading ability indicates the study applied the Psychometric and Social Contextual approaches.
• Analysis of Behavior of Preschool Age Child With Autism The child’s behavior in the video differs from that of a mentally healthy child, and these differences lie in the child’s other emotional state and degree of interest in talking to people.
• Autism and Disability Advocacy People with autism can contribute to the diversity of disability culture by expanding understanding of what disability is and how it can be accepted.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis According to DSM-5, to fit the diagnostic criteria for ASD, a child must have evident deficits in three major areas of social communication as well as 2 out of the 4 restricted or repetitive behaviors.
• Thinking in Pictures: Autism and Sensory Problems The chapter “The Squeeze Machine: Sensory Problems in Autism” in Grandin’s Thinking in Pictures presents a series of life perspectives of various individuals, including her own, regarding the sensory problems they experienced. They postulated that […]
• Therapeutic Programs for Children With Autism in K-12 Institutions In the paper, the gaps in the research of effective treatments for children with ASD are explored, after which the efficacy of a multi-system aquatic therapy and standardized equine-assisted therapy program is argued.
• Societal Issue Research Project: Autism Spectrum Disorder The first factor is the significant risk that the genetics of siblings who had ASD diagnosis will increase the chance of the disorder.
• Child-Centered Play Therapy and Autism The purpose of the discussed research was to investigate the effects of CCPT on the sample of children with autism, establishing and describing the connection between CCPT and social and emotional growth.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Training Program for Caregivers The latter means that many caregivers take care of children with ASD, hence the importance of equipping them with the necessary skills for effective and smooth parenting and coping with various difficulties.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder’s Impact on Child’s Learning In regards to the public-school setting, standardized testing demands youngsters to grasp and react to spoken as well as written communication at an anticipated pace and level.
• Laboratory Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders The purpose of my study is to discover which of these methods is more accurate, with the reason being the importance of early diagnosis of ASD, which leads to better treatment outcomes.
• Autism and Related Cognitive Concepts It has been suggested that children with autism show a general deficit of cognitive skills in multilevel planning and in the regulation of behavior.
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Face Emotion Recognition in Autism Phenotype One critical aspect of social communication is the capability to apprehend the emotions and intentions of another person. In conclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder makes the interpretation of facial expressions difficult.
• Misrepresentation of Autism in the ‘Music’ Film While the film was not centered on the topic of autism as its message, the stereotype-heavy portrayal and a lack of research make it a harmful piece of media.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence and Impact in Society It has therefore been impossible to determine the level of increase in autism cases that is as a result of improved diagnostic measures and that which can be attributed to the real increase in autism […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnosis, Impact, Treatment The main diagnostic element for ASD is the evidence of difficulties, either in the present or past, which are different across the age groups.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Everyone Has the Power to Effect Positive Change Within the Autism Community This paper presents what is autism, how every one reacts to the problem, what is the difference between the rich and the poor in their response towards the problem.”Autism is one of five developmental disorders […]
• Reducing Off-Task Behaviors Using a Token Economy System in Children With Autism Token economy is a strategy of positive reinforcement that can be provided to children in the form of tokens for completing the assigned tasks.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Key Points The requirement to meet these needs is supported by the fact that the rate of students with ASD is high: according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, more than 83 per cent of […]
• “Theoretical Aspects of Autism” by Helen Ratajczak On the whole, it is possible to say that the standards set by Austin Hill cannot be always met, in part because the physiological aspects of this disease have not been fully investigated.
• Dr. Temple Grandin’s Argument on Visual Thinking and Autism A more in-depth analysis of visual activities can reveal the all imagery can be mentally processed and modified by children so that images are rotated and analyzed to make the brain map expand.
• Intellectual Disability: Autism In their adulthood, and because of the communication issues that most individuals with autism tend to have, they will naturally have difficulty in finding and keeping jobs.
• Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Children With Autism On the positive side, it fastens the production of different types of reactive oxygen used in the body. It is arguable that the size of the samples used in the study was small.
• Analysis of Children Autism in “The Black Balloon” It is imperative to note that Charlie’s emotions are not regulated and as such, manifest in immature behaviors such as flapping of his hands.
• Occupational Therapy for Children With Autism The main reason for the appearance of autism is the disturbance of the development of the patients brain which results in the appearance of various symptoms.
• The Mitochondria and Autism – Results and Main Function The results are important in health because children with autism were more probable to have dysfunctions and abnormalities of the mitochondria such as over replication and deletion of mitochondrial DNA compared to those without the […]
• Autism Etiology, Symptoms, Beliefs, and Management To date, debate on the cause or etiology of autism still remains divided, with extant literature demonstrating that “although many hypotheses have been proposed, a singular or specific combination of causes has yet to be […]
• Quantitative Assessment of Neuromotor Function in Adolescents With High Functioning Autism: Critique The study authors did not give the benefits and/or risks associated with the study participation. The authors indicated that the ZNA was appropriate for collecting the data because it could measure the 11 parameters of […]
• Critical Appraisal on the Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Family: A Qualitative Study of Mothers’ Perspectives The study researchers established the significance of the study by outlining the social and financial implications of taking care of children with ASD.
• Autism: External Forces, Causes and Treatment The increasing prevalence of Autism in the United States and across the world is attracting great attention from the healthcare sector to design critical programs tailored to stem the disorder in terms of prevention, treatment, […]
• The Importance of Services for Children With Autism The plea of the majority of Americans for the reverse of healthcare budget allocation is well because it is wrong to interfere with services offered to children with autism. With childcare initiative in place, the […]
• Autism: General Information and Treatment She argues that the treatment of autism is through scientific proven medication that aids in controlling aggressive behaviors and that Trisperidone is the commonly used antipsychotic.
• The Issue of Autism: Task-Group Project The role of B.N.in the meeting can be seen as a summarizer, providing a summary of the minutes of the previous meeting.
• Concepts of Autism and Williams Syndrome The disorder manifests itself in the early years of a child’s life, with long-lasting effects that are not curable but controllable and easy to deal with on condition that, the concerned parties take the necessary […]
• Autism Programs to Enhance Students’ Outcomes In addition to social and behavioral challenges, ASD typically hinders a learner’s ability to gain and process the necessary academic information.
• Autism Program’s Impact Across Contexts In other words, a detailed overview of the issues that administrators face when designing the program and which the teachers have to deal with when addressing the needs of children with autism must be carried […]
• Autism: Teaching Plan for Taking All the Features Into Account For the first child, caregiver training was done at child’s bedroom, and for the second child it was done at living room, and for the third child with severe mental retardation it was carried out […]
• Education Considerations for Students With Autism Two articles under consideration consider the opposite views regarding the education of students with autism; on the basis of the information obtained from these articles, it can be stated that none of the perspectives is […]
• Developmental Psychology: Autism and Vaccination Vaccination of infants is widely used today as the pattern of endemic diseases can be explained in terms of interplay of social, physical and biological factors in an area that is conducive to a continuous […]
• Social Work Methods to Treat the Child Who Is Suffering From Autism This is a clear indicator that alcohol intake by the family is costing the members and it is an issue that needs to be looked into.
• Autism and Immunization: Vaccines and the Changing Epidemiology The interest and attention invoked by this paper were largely due to the fact that it appeared to provide a biological means through which MMR vaccine resulted in autism.
• The Autism-Vaccine Debate, Arguments, and Research Autism is defined by the Autism Society of America as ” a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first 3 years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects […]
• Autism and False Belief in Psychology The theories are found to be covering the deficits of an individuals’ mind and factors relating to autism, research further indicates that a child’s behavior may be influenced by the executive functions this, therefore, brings […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Interventions However, the negative side of it is that such an intervention is limited to those patients who are verbal and have limited vocabulary.
• Autism: Symptoms, Forms, Diagnostic Instruments Autism is basically a developmental disorder of the human brain that its first symptoms are initially manifested in infancy and it follows a steady cause without relapse.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Features in Children One of the causes for the appearance of these issues is an inborn disability that might presuppose the need for specific methods to educate a child and guarantee a chance for integration with society.
• Autism Occurrence by Measles Vaccine Status The organization of information in the text follows a logical format by introducing the background for the vaccine, incorporating the issue of ASD connection, and leading up to the primary research question.
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder In the introduction, which is the first section, the study’s research problems and their significance to nursing are stated. The discussion section covers how the authors relate the findings to the research objective and the […]
• Teenagers With Autism Disorder Autism is seen as a spectrum disorder since its severity and symptoms vary greatly among affected individuals – from mild and occasional to persistent and interfering with all aspects of life.
• Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on Life However, between the ages of two and three, his lack of verbal activity and inability to “echo” simple sounds and syllables were found to be very concerning by the family.
• Autism Should Not Be Viewed as a Disability A good example is that the treatment of autism as a mental disorder makes it possible for pharmaceutical companies and clinics to invent new health systems or procedures that will meet the needs of the […]
• Autist Student’s Behavior and Remedial Plan In the process of reading, I would pay attention to the student’s concentration and ability to integrate what she was reading. She also took long in doing this and did not want to stop the […]
• Autism Treatment, Its Methods and Results It was appropriate to focus on the use of the DSE intervention and examine if addressed most of the challenges facing many ASD patients.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Programs Effectiveness The purpose of this PE, therefore, is to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of the programs implemented by the Day Support Services.
• Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders The main goal of this paper is to present a review of relevant literature addressing the issue of helping college students with ASD prepare for workforce readiness and job placement.
• Association Between Vaccination and Autism The study examined whether there is a link between the toxic effects of exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and the risk of developing ASD.
• Olfaction and Autism Spectrum Disorder Relationship These findings reveal that the sniff test can reveal both the presence and severity of ASD in young children. The link between ASD and olfaction can be used in diagnosing young children with autism.
• Abu Dhabi Autism Center The Abu Dhabi Autism Center has to operate within the laws and regulations of the Zayed Higher Organization for Humanitarian Care and Special Needs.
• Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism It is the most commonly applied autism treatment remedy in the United States and several other countries in the world and the major method that schools and therapists embrace and use.
• Inclusive Education: Child With Autism and Spina Bifida It is worth mentioning that Ted’s mother is willing to cooperate with teachers, and her participation can be of great assistance to the teacher.
• Children With Autism’ Communication in Saudi Arabia Parents of children with autism in Saudi Arabia have complained that the government has neglected the needs of autistic children by failing to finance their education and research to detect the effectiveness of the digital […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Testing and Measurement It will begin with the rationale that explain why the issues are critical, followed by the reasons for unavailability of the solutions to the issues and the consequences of the issues.
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Educational Interventions From this point, this paper aims to discuss the definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders, examine the etiology and incidence of the disorder, focus on the prevalence of autism, and analyze the effectiveness of the DTT […]
• Vaccines and Autism: Separating Facts From Fiction The advocacy groups say that thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, is toxic to the central nervous system and responsible for an alarming rise in rates of autism among children in the United States and […]
• Lesson for Learners With Autism: Reflection Observation The essay identifies the instructional methods used by the teacher during the exercise. The teacher also guided the learners to solve the mathematical problems using different visual objects.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Concept Besides, Temple often explores her own experiences and attempts to understand the feelings of others that are unavailable to her by visualizing herself as other creatures people and animals.
• Dubai Autism Center’ Quality Management TQM employs strategies and effective communication within the organization to incorporate the quality principles into the culture and activities of the organization to ensure that all the activities are geared towards satisfying the customers.
• Vaccination and Autism in Children The problem with this case is that while it may be true that the cause for the development of autism in children have yet to be fully determined, the fact remains that there have been […]
• Video Modeling for Individuals With Autism The video model will be developed according to the needs of autistic children, with the focus on the role of visual and auditory stimuli in the teaching process.
• The Effects of Vaccines on Autism From their study, the findings demonstrate that the presence of thimerosal is one of the causes of the disorder. It is imperative to state that they have used many studies that have indicated that there […]
• Vaccination as a Cause Autism This paper borrows on the arguments of Monica Prasad and Washington and Haydn when they argue that the belief about vaccinations as a primary cause of autism stems from emotional, psychological, and behavioral barriers, as […]
• Youth With Autism Disorder: Education and Employment This includes the communication patterns of the teenager, the extent of social relations and the unusual behavioral characteristics of the teenager in the environment.
• Autism Children Education Inclusion Policy in Private Schools: Compulsory Enrollment Policy 2011 The following are the main areas will be addressed by the policy: Prohibited Private schools will be prohibited from ignoring the needs of children suffering from autism; they will be compelled by the act to […]
• Autism: Pathogenesis and Intervention Similarly, a person with autism has to be trained on the process of communicating normally and forming a relationship with objects, events and people in their lives.
• The Real Causes of Autism However, the main problem is that this association or correlation does not imply that autism is triggered by a vaccine. This is the main argument that can be put forward.
• Autism. Sensory Integration. Tactile Desensitization The poor development that is recorded at the early stages in life is likely to affect the development of different skills by the individuals even in the adult stages The signs that are associated with […]
• Autism Effect on Children It is crucial to understand the behavior of children with autism in the school set up in order to understand how autism affects children and their social interactions. It is up to the teacher to […]
• Autism and Its Effects on Social Interaction The article “Social Impairment in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” identifies the major challenges facing many people with autism. The authors wanted to examine the social problems and difficulties encountered by individuals with Autism Spectrum […]
• Older Dads More Likely to Have Kids With Autism The author highlights autism as one of the main outcomes of late fatherhood following the release of the results of a study involving the counting of the mutations corresponding to a father’s age at the […]
• Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children Autism largely is connected to communication abilities of a child, a situation that later results into the child experiencing disability problems in effectively encoding and decoding communicative messages.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Family Impact One of the greatest fears of a parent with such a child is the fact that such a child would be taken care of until the advanced stages of their lives.
• Program Models in Autism The DTT technique has been designed in such a way as to target the individual behavior of an autistic child using the available curriculum.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Relation to Education Attending to students having ASD in the regular classrooms requires specialized teachers and supplementary staff in order to aid in the realization of the needs of the students having ASD.
• Autism in Saudi Arabia This support may come in the form of modification of the curriculum to cater for the special needs of the autistic children.
• Analysis of Autism Disorder This disorder affects the brain of the child during growth so that it does not develop in the right way thus affecting the social and communication skills of the child. This is especially to the […]
• Psychological Disorders and Their Treatment: An Overview of the Recent Progress and the Current Challenges in Treating Autism in Children In the given paper, the issue of psychological disorders is being addressed in reference to the ideas expressed in Chapter 11 “Psychological Disorders” in Carole Wade and Carol Tavris’s Invitation to Psychology.
• Early Intervention for Young Adults With Autism This is due to unavailability of information on children development stages and the importance of early detection and intervention in the case of autism.
• Different Behaviors in Children With Autism The purpose is to find out whether the co morbidity changes with the environment, and assess the influence that the environment has on the behavior of an autistic child.
• Diagnosis and Treatment for Autism Disorder Children with autism are therefore able to reason and even interpret the feelings of other people but the challenge is to communicate the response to other people.
• Autism: Qualitative Research Design Golafshani continues to argue that the use of the term “dependability” in qualitative studies is a close match to the idea of “reliability” in quantitative research.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.
• Vaccines and Autism: A Critical Analysis of Thimerosal in Relation to Measles, Mumps, and Rubella The safety and efficacy of vaccines has been the subject of many studies in the medical field. The disorder was observed in one participant from each of the cohorts in the experiment.
• How to Recognize and Teach Students With Autism If these groups of students have to be given directions that are more than three steps, the directions have to be written down due to their inability to remember sequences.
• Autism and Visual Thought Suprisingly the quality of visual thinking according to Bogdashina is dependent on other factors like time and the state the autistic person is in.
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism? Thimerosal is alleged to increase the exposure of mercury in the vaccine to a substantiated high amount. In fact, the amount of antigens between children with autism and without is the same irrespective of the […]
• Language Development Problems in Children: An Indicative Characteristic of Autism This is because it is a time when it is expected that a majority of the kids should be able to talk.
• The Disease of Autism Origin The disorder is one of the new diagnoses of the autism. Other effects of the disorder are constipation and growth failures that may be a problem to the lives of the individual.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Its Impact on the Family Manning, Wainwright and Bennet argue that children with autism are faced with a big challenge because of the nature of the symptoms the disorder.
• Autism’s Teaching Tips for Children and Adults The present description is concerned with the role of teacher in the better management of Autism in children. Further, assessment of the interactive and developmental skills is on of the important component in the teacher […]
• How Christopher’s Autism Affect His Life In spite of the fact that the issue of autism is not clearly explained in the story, the condition of the narrator is referred to as high-functioning autism or Aspersers Syndrome on the cover of […]
• What Are Autism Spectrum Disorders?
• How Does Autism Affect the Person With It and Those Around Them?
• What Are the Barriers of Learning for a Learner With Autism/Aspergers in Performing Arts?
• Does Gluten Effect Children With Autism?
• What Are the Causes of Autism?
• How Does Autism Affect a Child’s Educational Performance?
• What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do to Spot It?
• Can Children With Autism Develop a Theory of Mind?
• Which Interventions Reduce Anxiety in Autistic People?
• What Influence Has the Development of Autism Had on a Diagnosed Individual?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Are Huddles the Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Implementing Clinical Innovation for the Eating Disorder and Autism Comorbidity?
• How Does Autism Start?
• Can Mouse Imaging Studies Bring Order to Autism Connectivity Chaos?
• How Does ‘Fake News’ Affect Autism Policy?
• Are There Any Relationships Between Latent Toxoplasma Gondii Infection, Testosterone Elevation, and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Do People With Autism Experience the World?
• Can Robotic Systems Promote Self-Disclosure in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Did the Media Perpetuate the Autism-Vaccine Scare?
• Are There Cultural Differences in Parental Interest in Early Diagnosis and Genetic Risk Assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Can the Therapist Help Autism Children?
• Can Vaccinations Cause Autism?
• Does Autism Spectrum Disorder Affect People All Around the World?
• Is There a Correlation Between Epigenetics and Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Does Autism Affect Regular Brain Functions as Well as Socialization Skills?
• What Can Responses to Music in Autism Tell Us About the Nature of Musical Emotions?
• Why Has the Incidence Rate of Autism Increased?
• What Are the Most Effective Ways to Support/Provide Social Care For Autistic Adults?
• Which Interventions Are Effective in the Development of Communication/Language Skills in Autism?
• How Can Parents and Family Members Be Supported/Educated to Care For and Better Understand an Autistic Relative?
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Autism spectrum disorders articles from across Nature Portfolio

Autism spectrum disorders are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that are characterized by impaired social interaction and communication skills, and are often accompanied by other behavioural symptoms such as repetitive or stereotyped behaviour and abnormal sensory processing. Individual symptoms and cognitive functioning vary across the autism spectrum disorders.

Latest Research and Reviews

Integrative genetic analysis: cornerstone of precision psychiatry

• Jacob Vorstman
• Jonathan Sebat
• Sébastien Jacquemont

Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder

Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or autism spectrum disorder show executive function deficits compared to neurotypical peers. In this Review, Kofler et al. question the evidence to examine whether these deficits are shared across both conditions and provide recommendations for future work.

• Michael J. Kofler
• Elia F. Soto
• Erica D. Musser

Twinned neuroimaging analysis contributes to improving the classification of young people with autism spectrum disorder

• Iman Jahani
• Bradley J. MacIntosh

Mapping cerebellar anatomical heterogeneity in mental and neurological illnesses

This study maps cerebellar anatomy across the lifespan using over 54,000 brain scans from 132 scanning sites and identifies that patients with autism spectrum disorder, mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer disease, and schizophrenia are likely to have deviations in cerebellar anatomy.

• Esten Leonardsen
• Torgeir Moberget

Individual differences in interoception and autistic traits share altered facial emotion perception, but not recognition per se

• Milica Nikolić
• Mariska E. Kret

Male autism spectrum disorder is linked to brain aromatase disruption by prenatal BPA in multimodal investigations and 10HDA ameliorates the related mouse phenotype

Prenatal bisphenol A exposure is associated with an increased risk of ASD in boys through a mechanism involving aromatase suppression. These resulting ASD-related behaviors and brain abnormalities may be reversed through postnatal intervention with 10HDA in mice.

• Christos Symeonides
• Kristina Vacy
• Wah Chin Boon

News and Comment

The exclusively inclusive landscape of autism research.

People with intellectual disability are underrepresented and often actively excluded from autism research. A better understanding of autism requires inclusive research approaches that accurately represent the broad heterogeneity of the autistic population.

• Lauren Jenner
• Joanna Moss

Association of fluvoxamine with mortality and symptom resolution among inpatients with COVID-19

• Guangting Zeng
• Jianqiang Li
• Zanling Zhang

Autistic people three times more likely to develop Parkinson’s-like symptoms

Largest study of its kind also finds increased risk in older adults with a range of intellectual disabilities.

• Miryam Naddaf

Targeting RNA opens therapeutic avenues for Timothy syndrome

A therapeutic strategy that alters gene expression in a rare and severe neurodevelopmental condition has been tested in stem-cell-based models of the disease, and has been shown to correct genetic and cellular defects.

• Silvia Velasco

Vasopressin deficiency: a hypothesized driver of both social impairment and fluid imbalance in autism spectrum disorder

• Lauren Clarke
• Neil Gesundheit
• Karen J. Parker

Oscillatory index of speech reception deficits

• Jean Mary Zarate

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College of Education and Human Development

Department of Educational Psychology

Research topics: Autism

Identifying, preventing, and developing interventions related to autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Research in the Department of Educational Psychology focuses on early identification, prevention measures, and interventions related to ASD.

LeAnne Johnson

Johnson (special education) researches interventions to improve outcomes for a range of preschool and elementary school-aged children who are at high risk given social, emotional, behavioral, and communication needs. Johnson is focused on creating the next generation of intervention studies that support high fidelity implementation of evidence-based interventions within tiered intervention and prevention models. This includes research projects that are designed to test the efficacy of social-communication interventions for children with autism.

Jason Wolff

Wolff (special education) runs a lab funded funded in-part by the National Institute of Mental Health with two goals -- to leverage brain imaging data to characterize factors associated with the early emergence of behavioral excesses and deficits in autism spectrum disorder, and to identify potential neurodevelopmental moderators of response to early intervention. The ultimate goal of this work is to determine how brain and behavioral data may be used to inform the timing and content of early or even preventative interventions.

Panayiota Kendeou

Kendeou (psychological foundations of education) investigates how people learn new knowledge and revise pre-existing incorrect knowledge or misinformation during their reading experiences. She is currently investigating how misinformation that resists correction influences reasoning and decision making in health issues pertaining to ASD (e.g., reliance on ineffective treatments, withholding vaccinations), and explore ways for effective revision.

M.Y. Savana Bak

Bak's research focuses on measurement and analysis of language in children with ASD using language samples collected from the children’s natural environment. She strives to develop practical interventions and identify environmental factors that facilitate language development and increase social interaction in children with ASD.

Related degrees

Phd in special education.

Interested in conducting research in autism spectrum disorder? Learn more about earning your doctorate in special education .

Related labs and projects

• ALAB: A Lab for Autism Research
• Reading + Learning Lab
• Research lab: Jason Wolff

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100 Autism Research Paper Topics

Careful selection of autism research paper topics is very important. That’s because there are many autism topics that students can research and write about. The topic that a learner chooses dictates the direction that their research and writing process will take. As such, students should select their topic ideas based on their academic goals. Ideally, what a learner opts to write about should help them accomplish their study goals.

Autism can be defined as a spectral disorder that makes a child seem to have a world of their own. Many parents misinterpret this disorder and assume that the child does not notice them. However, this is usually not the case. Parents are the first people to notice this disorder. With more children being diagnosed with this disorder, educators are asking learners to write about autism essay topics.

If you’ve been asked to write about this subject, take your time to research this disorder. You can even read the autobiographies of autistic people. If possible, meet and interact with autistic people before you start writing. This will give you an idea of what this condition is all about. Our psychology topics may also come in handy. In most cases, you will be required to focus your paper or essay on the creation of more autism awareness. This article highlights some of the topics in autism that you can consider for your paper or essay.

Basic Autism Research Paper Topics

Autism is a broad research area. Researchers have delved into this field and came up with different findings. However, you can still pick a topic for your research in this field and come up with new information. Here are some of the most interesting research topics in autism that can form the basis of your academic paper or essay.

• Why some people autistic and others are not?
• Does being autistic have advantages?
• Why is being autistic disadvantageous?
• Some people have a good memory or recall skills, explain why
• Facts that people should know about autism
• Explain the chemical brain differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals
• Discuss some of major breakthroughs in autism research
• Why do people with autism have difficulty socializing with others?
• What can normal people learn from autistic people’s brains?
• What characteristics should a person with autism have?
• How should an autistic person be trained during care provision?
• What should caregivers understand about autism to do their job right?
• Explain the behavior of autistic individuals towards family members
• Provide an average autistic individual’s overview
• How can the social interactions of autistic people be improved?
• Explain what causes autism
• What educational programs do autistic people have?
• How to diagnose autism in the early stages
• Explain the role of music in an autistic person’s life
• Is there a treatment for reducing autistic people’s disadvantages?
• What are the employment limitations and opportunities for autistic people?
• Discuss the major stories about autism that have been shared in the media
• What is yet to be discovered about autism?
• Explain how healthcare workers can help autistic individuals go through their daily life
• Describe the top 5 autistic individuals that are best known in history

These are some of the most interesting autism topics for research paper or essay. However, you should research them extensively before you start writing. That’s because each of these topics requires you to include verifiable facts in your paper or essay.

Strong Autism Dissertation Topics

With so many children being diagnosed with autism, more learners are writing dissertations on this subject. And there are many autism research topics from which a learner can choose. Here are some of the best autism thesis topics to consider.

• Is there evidence to prove that environmental triggers are responsible for rising autism cases?
• Explain the relationship between stimming self-regulator for anxiety and autism
• Why is autism prevalence in western society greater?
• How is autism related to mental health?
• How can family doctors be supported to take care of autistic people?
• Discuss autism and childhood immunization
• Discuss some of the prominent individuals in history that were most likely autistic
• How can autistic people be supported at the workplace?
• How do autistic females differ from autistic males?
• Can autistic children adapt to mainstream education?
• What are the positives and negatives of special education for autistic children?
• Should autistic children attend special schools?
• Why do people consider autism a spectrum disorder?
• What diagnostic changes have raised the concern that Asperger’s Syndrome might no longer exist
• Does lifestyle play a role in autism?

Some of these topics on autism may seem complex to research and write about. However, you can find relevant and sufficient supporting evidence from different sources. You just need the time and resources required to write about any of these topics about autism.

Autism Parent Training Topics

Raising an autistic child is not easy. Parents and caregivers should learn about autism spectrum disorder and its effects on their children. They should also learn how this disorder affects the entire family. It’s for this reason that researchers focus on research topics in autism that educate parents and caregivers about taking care of autistic children. Here are some of the best autism social learning topics.

• How to manage the parenting challenges for people with autistic children
• How to enhance the communication skills of autistic children
• How to enhance the coping skills of autistic children
• How to address the negative behaviors of autistic children
• How to increase the play skills of autistic children
• How to diagnose autism early in children
• How to increase the independence of autistic children
• How to improve self-help in autistic children
• How does autism in one child affect the other family members?
• How to solve the daily problems of autistic children

Each of these topics is meant to produce a paper or essay that can help parents of autistic children cope with the disorder. The information can also help the parents make their children lead a better life despite their condition.

Paper Topics about Autism and Education

Since it’s a complex disorder that affects brain development, autism touches on education as well. Here are some of the good research paper topics on autism and education that you can write about.

• Why is autism worth researching?
• Discuss the causes of autism
• Discuss the development realms that are affected by autism
• What resources do autistic people have access to?
• Explain how autistic children learn
• Explain how autism affects the learning process
• Explain the struggles of autistic students
• Explain parent training autism
• Discuss the major types of autism
• How does learning differ between autistic and normal students?

These topics focus on the relationship between autism and learning or education. Just like the topics in the other categories, they require extensive research to write about too.

Autism Research Proposal Topics

A lot of information about autism is being discussed by researchers across the world. This makes it hard for some learners to pick proposal topics for their autism papers. Here are some of the topics to consider if struggling to pick your proposal topic.

• What is autism therapy?
• Is autism therapy helpful?
• How should caregivers provide care to autistic persons?
• What is the best way to work for an autistic person?
• Working with an autistic person- What are the major challenges?
• How do you cope with an autistic family member?
• How should autistic people be treated in social places?
• What limitations do autistic people have in modern society?
• Is the current society considerate of autistic people?
• How does modern technology benefit autistic people?

If you pick a research topic on autism from this category, take the time to research it extensively to write a brilliant paper or essay.

Thought-Provoking Autism Debate Topics

Perhaps, you want to write a paper or essay that can form the basis of a debate about autism. In that case, consider one of these topics.

• How celebrities and pseudo-scientists have caused serious damage by claiming that autism is related to vaccinations
• How to educate society about autism
• How to change the future of autistic children with early interventions
• How school officials can help autistic children
• How to help autistic kids whose parents are uncooperative or in denial
• How autistic children can benefit from occupational therapy
• Discuss the DSM-V regarding autism
• How educational opportunities for autistic children compare to those of normal children
• How health officials can convince the public that shots don’t cause autism
• Should children that have not been vaccinated because parents believe that vaccines cause autism be taken to school?
• How to support siblings of an individual with autism
• How to transition a person with autism to community-based services from school-based services.
• How to fight for autistic people’s rights
• How to deal with the psychological struggles of autistic children
• How music affects autistic patients
• Social organizations for autistic people
• Why diagnosing autism early is important
• Can autism be prevented?
• How to interact with autistic people
• What employment options do autistic people have?
• How to manage autism in adults
• A brief history of autism
• How living with an autistic person can affect your life
• How genetics affect autism
• Can the environment cause autism?
• Can medical treatment cause autism?
• A review of autism in different countries
• A review of autism in different cultures
• What signs of autism should parents watch out for?
• How to develop a treatment plan for autism

This category has controversial topics autism researchers can explore too. Nevertheless, whether you choose parenting or autism biology topics for research paper, take the time to research extensively before you start writing. Don’t hesitate to contact us if you need thesis writing help .

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Autism: Innovations and Future Directions in Psychological Research

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Research focusing on psychological aspects of autism is an expanding discipline, covering multiple fields including cognition, perception, clinical research, neuroscience, and social psychology. New knowledge is accruing all the time, but with an increase in research comes the difficulty of assimilating the ...

Keywords : autism, cognition, perception, neuroscience, social psychology, participatory research

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Autism and Developmental Disorders Research Program

Welcome to the website of the  Autism and Developmental Disorders Research Program (ADDRP) , Lucile Packard Children's Hospital at Stanford University.  This Stanford autism research program is based in the  Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences  at the Stanford University School of Medicine.

ADDRP focuses on improving the quality of life of individuals with autism spectrum disorder and/or intellectual disabilities. Through research methods that range from clinical trials, neuroimaging investigations, behavioral analysis to basic science methods, the researchers at ADDRP are committed to developing effective treatment strategies and identifying the causes of these conditions.

Our main research aim is to better understand the basic neurobiology of autism and other developmental disorders while furthering our understanding of how genetic and environmental factors may contribute to the onset and progression of these disorders. With this aim in mind, we conduct a variety of research studies and clinical trials of novel behavioral and biological therapies in hopes of developing effective interventions for the treatment of core features of these disorders.

Acknowledgements

The Stanford Autism and Developmental Disorders Research Program would like to thank the children, as well as their parents and families, for contributing to research. The joint effort to better understand and provide therapies for developmental disorders is not possible without their past and continued involvement.

Stanford ADDRP would also like to ackowledge financial support from the following organizations:

• National Institutes of Health
• Autism Speaks
• Simons Foundation
• John and Marcia Goldman Foundation
• Stanford Bio-X
• Child Health Research Institute
• The Teresa and Charles Michael Endowed Fund for Autism Research and Education
• The Mosbacher Family Fund for Autism Research
• PTEN Research Foundation
• The Bernard/Fung Family Fund for Autism Research at Stanford

In the News

2/2/22  Stanford Team Finds Benefits to Online Autism Treatment

7/16/21  Program improves resilience for parents of kids with autism

8/6/19 Stanford Trial Shows Parents Can Learn Therapy to Help Their Children With Autism Learn to Speak

8/5/19 One therapy bests others at motivating kids with autism to speak

5/1/19  Hormone reduces social impairment in kids with autism

3/6/19  Nature versus nurture in autism

2/2/18: Mechanical forces being studied by Stanford researchers may underlie brain's development and some diseases

7/12/17: Oxytocin improves social abilities in some kids with autism

4/10/17: Autism researchers seek teens, young adults for drug trial

9/21/2016: The seekers: Why parents try fringe therapies for autism

8/16/2016:  Automating genetic analysis helps keep up with rapid discovery of new diseases

7/22/2015 : Low levels of hormone linked to social deficit in autism

10/27/2014 : Group classes teach parents effective autism therapy, study finds

8/4/2014 : Blood-oxytocin levels in normal range in children with autism, study finds

11/14/2013 : Stanford drug trial seeks participants with autism spectrum disorder

8/13/2012 : Stanford researchers investigate the emotional side of autism

5/29/2012 : Antioxidant Shows Promise as Treatment for Certain Features of Autism, Study Finds (reprinted in ScienceDaily)

Spring 2012 : Autism Answers - Parents run experiments to see what works

9/2/2011 : Spotting autism's unique shape in the brain

7/30/2011 : Autism Risks: Genes May Not Play Biggest Role

1/25/2010 : Stanford/Packard autism researchers seek twins for brain-imaging study  

Related Pages & Events

Upcoming events.

16th Annual Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) Conference  9/28/24, now registering! 

SAVE THE DATE! 

The Stanford Neurodiversity Summit

9/22/24-9/24/24 at the Li Ka Shing Conference Center, Stanford, CA

2024 Bay Area Adult Autism/DD Conference

12/7/24 at the Li Ka Shing Conference Center, Stanford, CA 

18th Annual Autism Update

3/22/25  at Li Ka Shing Conference Center, Stanford,CA 

Autism Parent Support Group

Meets on second Mondays from 7-8:30pm (Sept.-June).  Please  email us  to be added to the our to the monthly email with participant zoom information.

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Autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers any one of a group of disorders with an onset typically occurring during the preschool years and characterized by difficulties with social communication and social interactionalong with restricted and repetitive patterns in behaviors, interests, and activities.

Autism, Asperger’s syndrome, and childhood disintegrative disorder are no longer considered distinct diagnoses, and medical or genetic disorders that may be associated with ASD, such as Rett’s syndrome, are identified only as specifiers of the disorder.

Adapted from the APA Dictionary of Psychology

Resources from APA

Knowing me, knowing you: Self defining memories in adolescents with and without an autism spectrum disorder

Do autistic adolescents and non-autistic adolescents recall self-defining and everyday memories in the same way?

Amy Pearson, PhD

Pearson is an autistic researcher who uses creative research strategies to understand friendship, bullying, and other aspects of autism

“Autism research is in crisis”: A mixed method study of researcher’s constructions of autistic people and autism research

Learn how the involvement of autistic individuals in research might transform the way autism is understood and discussed in the scientific world

Diagnosis as a new beginning not an end: A participatory photovoice study on navigating an autism diagnosis in adulthood

Uncover the unique stories of women seeking autism diagnosis in adulthood, captured through the lens of their own cameras

More resources about ASD

What APA is doing

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities/Autism Spectrum Disorder

APA’s Division 33 is dedicated to advancing psychological research, professional education, and clinical services that increase quality of life in individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities or autism spectrum disorder across the life course.

Behavioral Interventions in Schools, 2nd Ed.

Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Adolescents

Innovative Investigations of Language in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Play Therapy in Middle Childhood

Autism and Your Teen

Magination Press children’s books

Autism, The Invisible Cord

All My Stripes

Russell's World

Asperger's Teens

Asperger's Rules!

Journal special issues

Autism and Other Child Developmental Disorders

Transforming the understanding and treatment of mental illnesses.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder

What is asd.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological and developmental disorder that affects how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave. Although autism can be diagnosed at any age, it is described as a “developmental disorder” because symptoms generally appear in the first 2 years of life.

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) , a guide created by the American Psychiatric Association that health care providers use to diagnose mental disorders, people with ASD often have:

• Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people
• Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors
• Symptoms that affect their ability to function in school, work, and other areas of life

Autism is known as a “spectrum” disorder because there is wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience.

People of all genders, races, ethnicities, and economic backgrounds can be diagnosed with ASD. Although ASD can be a lifelong disorder, treatments and services can improve a person’s symptoms and daily functioning. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children receive screening for autism. Caregivers should talk to their child’s health care provider about ASD screening or evaluation.

What are the signs and symptoms of ASD?

The list below gives some examples of common types of behaviors in people diagnosed with ASD. Not all people with ASD will have all behaviors, but most will have several of the behaviors listed below.

Social communication / interaction behaviors may include:

• Making little or inconsistent eye contact
• Appearing not to look at or listen to people who are talking
• Infrequently sharing interest, emotion, or enjoyment of objects or activities (including infrequent pointing at or showing things to others)
• Not responding or being slow to respond to one’s name or to other verbal bids for attention
• Having difficulties with the back and forth of conversation
• Often talking at length about a favorite subject without noticing that others are not interested or without giving others a chance to respond
• Displaying facial expressions, movements, and gestures that do not match what is being said
• Having an unusual tone of voice that may sound sing-song or flat and robot-like
• Having trouble understanding another person’s point of view or being unable to predict or understand other people’s actions
• Difficulties adjusting behaviors to social situations
• Difficulties sharing in imaginative play or in making friends

Restrictive / repetitive behaviors may include:

• Repeating certain behaviors or having unusual behaviors, such as repeating words or phrases (a behavior called echolalia)
• Having a lasting intense interest in specific topics, such as numbers, details, or facts
• Showing overly focused interests, such as with moving objects or parts of objects
• Becoming upset by slight changes in a routine and having difficulty with transitions
• Being more sensitive or less sensitive than other people to sensory input, such as light, sound, clothing, or temperature

People with ASD may also experience sleep problems and irritability.

People on the autism spectrum also may have many strengths, including:

• Being able to learn things in detail and remember information for long periods of time
• Being strong visual and auditory learners
• Excelling in math, science, music, or art

What are the causes and risk factors for ASD?

Researchers don’t know the primary causes of ASD, but studies suggest that a person’s genes can act together with aspects of their environment to affect development in ways that lead to ASD. Some factors that are associated with an increased likelihood of developing ASD include:

• Having a sibling with ASD
• Having older parents
• Having certain genetic conditions (such as Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome)
• Having a very low birth weight

How is ASD diagnosed?

Health care providers diagnose ASD by evaluating a person’s behavior and development. ASD can usually be reliably diagnosed by age 2. It is important to seek an evaluation as soon as possible. The earlier ASD is diagnosed, the sooner treatments and services can begin.

Diagnosis in young children

Diagnosis in young children is often a two-stage process.

Stage 1: General developmental screening during well-child checkups

Every child should receive well-child check-ups with a pediatrician or an early childhood health care provider. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children receive screening for developmental delays at their 9-, 18-, and 24- or 30-month well-child visits, with specific autism screenings at their 18- and 24-month well-child visits. A child may receive additional screening if they have a higher likelihood of ASD or developmental problems. Children with a higher likelihood of ASD include those who have a family member with ASD, show some behaviors that are typical of ASD, have older parents, have certain genetic conditions, or who had a very low birth weight.

Considering caregivers’ experiences and concerns is an important part of the screening process for young children. The health care provider may ask questions about the child’s behaviors and evaluate those answers in combination with information from ASD screening tools and clinical observations of the child. Read more about screening instruments   on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website.

If a child shows developmental differences in behavior or functioning during this screening process, the health care provider may refer the child for additional evaluation.

Stage 2: Additional diagnostic evaluation

It is important to accurately detect and diagnose children with ASD as early as possible, as this will shed light on their unique strengths and challenges. Early detection also can help caregivers determine which services, educational programs, and behavioral therapies are most likely to be helpful for their child.

A team of health care providers who have experience diagnosing ASD will conduct the diagnostic evaluation. This team may include child neurologists, developmental pediatricians, speech-language pathologists, child psychologists and psychiatrists, educational specialists, and occupational therapists.

The diagnostic evaluation is likely to include:

• Medical and neurological examinations
• Assessment of the child’s cognitive abilities
• Assessment of the child’s language abilities
• Observation of the child’s behavior
• An in-depth conversation with the child’s caregivers about the child’s behavior and development
• Assessment of age-appropriate skills needed to complete daily activities independently, such as eating, dressing, and toileting

Because ASD is a complex disorder that sometimes occurs with other illnesses or learning disorders, the comprehensive evaluation may include:

• Blood tests
• Hearing test

The evaluation may lead to a formal diagnosis and recommendations for treatment.

Diagnosis in older children and adolescents

Caregivers and teachers are often the first to recognize ASD symptoms in older children and adolescents who attend school. The school’s special education team may perform an initial evaluation and then recommend that a child undergo additional evaluation with their primary health care provider or a health care provider who specialize in ASD.

A child’s caregivers may talk with these health care providers about their child’s social difficulties, including problems with subtle communication. For example, some children may have problems understanding tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language. Older children and adolescents may have trouble understanding figures of speech, humor, or sarcasm. They also may have trouble forming friendships with peers.

Diagnosis in adults

Diagnosing ASD in adults is often more difficult than diagnosing ASD in children. In adults, some ASD symptoms can overlap with symptoms of other mental health disorders, such as anxiety disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Adults who notice signs of ASD should talk with a health care provider and ask for a referral for an ASD evaluation. Although evaluation for ASD in adults is still being refined, adults may be referred to a neuropsychologist, psychologist, or psychiatrist who has experience with ASD. The expert will ask about:

• Social interaction and communication challenges
• Sensory issues
• Repetitive behaviors
• Restricted interests

The evaluation also may include a conversation with caregivers or other family members to learn about the person’s early developmental history, which can help ensure an accurate diagnosis.

Receiving a correct diagnosis of ASD as an adult can help a person understand past challenges, identify personal strengths, and find the right kind of help. Studies are underway to determine the types of services and supports that are most helpful for improving the functioning and community integration of autistic transition-age youth and adults.

What treatment options are available for ASD?

Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care and services can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them build on their strengths and learn new skills.

People with ASD may face a wide range of issues, which means that there is no single best treatment for ASD. Working closely with a health care provider is an important part of finding the right combination of treatment and services.

A health care provider may prescribe medication to treat specific symptoms. With medication, a person with ASD may have fewer problems with:

• Irritability
• Repetitive behavior
• Hyperactivity
• Attention problems
• Anxiety and depression

Read more about the latest medication warnings, patient medication guides, and information on newly approved medications at the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website  .

Behavioral, psychological, and educational interventions

People with ASD may be referred to a health care provider who specializes in providing behavioral, psychological, educational, or skill-building interventions. These programs are often highly structured and intensive, and they may involve caregivers, siblings, and other family members. These programs may help people with ASD:

• Learn social, communication, and language skills
• Reduce behaviors that interfere with daily functioning
• Increase or build upon strengths
• Learn life skills for living independently

Other resources

Many services, programs, and other resources are available to help people with ASD. Here are some tips for finding these additional services:

• Contact your health care provider, local health department, school, or autism advocacy group to learn about special programs or local resources.
• Find an autism support group. Sharing information and experiences can help people with ASD and their caregivers learn about treatment options and ASD-related programs.
• Record conversations and meetings with health care providers and teachers. This information may help when it’s time to decide which programs and services are appropriate.
• Keep copies of health care reports and evaluations. This information may help people with ASD qualify for special programs.

How can I find a clinical trial for ASD?

Clinical trials are research studies that look at new ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions. The goal of clinical trials is to determine if a new test or treatment works and is safe. Although individuals may benefit from being part of a clinical trial, participants should be aware that the primary purpose of a clinical trial is to gain new scientific knowledge so that others may be better helped in the future.

Researchers at NIMH and around the country conduct many studies with patients and healthy volunteers. We have new and better treatment options today because of what clinical trials uncovered years ago. Be part of tomorrow’s medical breakthroughs. Talk to your health care provider about clinical trials, their benefits and risks, and whether one is right for you.

To learn more or find a study, visit:

• NIMH’s Clinical Trials webpage : Information about participating in clinical trials
• Clinicaltrials.gov: Current Studies on ASD  : List of clinical trials funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) being conducted across the country

Where can I learn more about ASD?

Free brochures and shareable resources.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder : This brochure provides information about the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of ASD. Also available  en español .
• Digital Shareables on Autism Spectrum Disorder : Help support ASD awareness and education in your community. Use these digital resources, including graphics and messages, to spread the word about ASD.

Federal resources

• Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development  
• National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke  
• National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders  
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention   (CDC)
• Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee  
• MedlinePlus   (also available en español  )

Research and statistics

• Science News About Autism Spectrum Disorder : This NIMH webpage provides press releases and announcements about ASD.
• Research Program on Autism Spectrum Disorders : This NIMH program supports research focused on the characterization, pathophysiology, treatment, and outcomes of ASD and related disorders.
• Statistics: Autism Spectrum Disorder : This NIMH webpage provides information on the prevalence of ASD in the U.S.
• Data & Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder   : This CDC webpage provides data, statistics, and tools about prevalence and demographic characteristics of ASD.
• Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network   : This CDC-funded program collects data to better understand the population of children with ASD.
• Biomarkers Consortium - The Autism Biomarkers Consortium for Clinical Trials (ABC-CT)   : This Foundation for the National Institutes of Health project seeks to establish biomarkers to improve treatments for children with ASD.

Last Reviewed:  February 2024

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• v.9(Suppl 1); 2020 Feb

Autism spectrum disorder: definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation

Holly hodges.

1 Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine and Meyer Center for Developmental Pediatrics, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA;

Casey Fealko

2 Western Michigan University Homer Stryker MD School of Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI, USA;

Neelkamal Soares

3 Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University Homer Stryker MD School of Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI, USA

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. There have been recent concerns about increased prevalence, and this article seeks to elaborate on factors that may influence prevalence rates, including recent changes to the diagnostic criteria. The authors review evidence that ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain, and enumerate factors that correlate with ASD risk. Finally, the article describes how clinical evaluation begins with developmental screening, followed by referral for a definitive diagnosis, and provides guidance on screening for comorbid conditions.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors ( 1 ). In 2013, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders —5 th edition (DSM-5) was published, updating the diagnostic criteria for ASD from the previous 4 th edition (DSM-IV) ( Table 1 ) ( 1 , 2 ).

ASD, autism spectrum disorder; SPCD, social (pragmatic) communication disorder.

In DSM-5, the concept of a “spectrum” ASD diagnosis was created, combining the DSM-IV’s separate pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) diagnoses: autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), into one. Rett syndrome is no longer included under ASD in DSM-5 as it is considered a discrete neurological disorder. A separate social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SPCD) was established for those with disabilities in social communication, but lacking repetitive, restricted behaviors. Additionally, severity level descriptors were added to help categorize the level of support needed by an individual with ASD.

This new definition is intended to be more accurate and works toward diagnosing ASD at an earlier age ( 3 ). However, studies estimating the potential impact of moving from the DSM-IV to the DSM-5 have predicted a decrease in ASD prevalence ( 4 , 5 ) and there has been concern that children with a previous PDD-NOS diagnosis would not meet criteria for ASD diagnosis ( 5 - 7 ). There are varying reports estimating the extent of and effects of this change. One study found that with parental report of ASD symptoms alone, the DSM-5 criteria identified 91% of children with clinical DSM-IV PDD diagnoses ( 8 ). However, a systematic review suggests only 50% to 75% of individuals maintain diagnoses ( 9 ) and other studies have also suggested a decreased rate of diagnosis of individuals with ASD under the DSM-5 criteria ( 10 ). Often those who did not meet the requirements were previously classified as high functioning Asperger’s syndrome and PDD-NOS ( 11 , 12 ). Overall, most studies suggest that the DSM-5 provides increased specificity and decreased sensitivity compared to the DSM-IV ( 5 , 13 ); so while those diagnosed with ASD are more likely to have the condition, there is a higher number of children whose ASD diagnosis is missed, particularly older children, adolescents, adults, or those with a former diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder or PDD-NOS ( 14 ). Nevertheless, the number of people who would be diagnosed under the DSM-IV, but not under the new DSM-5 appears to be declining over time, likely due to increased awareness and better documentation of behaviors ( 4 ).

It has yet to be determined how the new diagnosis of SPCD will impact the prevalence of ASD. One study found the new SPCD diagnosis encompasses those individuals who possess subthreshold autistic traits and do not qualify for a diagnosis of ASD, but who still have substantial needs ( 15 ). Furthermore, children who previously met criteria for PDD-NOS under the DSM-IV might now be diagnosed with SPCD.

Epidemiology

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the international prevalence of ASD at 0.76%; however, this only accounts for approximately 16% of the global child population ( 16 ). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates about 1.68% of United States (US) children aged 8 years (or 1 in 59 children) are diagnosed with ASD ( 6 , 17 ). In the US, parent-reported ASD diagnoses in 2016 averaged slightly higher at 2.5% ( 18 ). The prevalence of ASD in the US more than doubled between 2000–2002 and 2010–2012 according to Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDM) estimates ( 6 ). Although it may be too early to comment on trends, in the US, the prevalence of ASD has appeared to stabilize with no statistically significant increase from 2014 to 2016 ( 19 ). Changing diagnostic criteria may impact prevalence and the full impact of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria has yet to be seen ( 17 ).

Insurance mandates requiring commercial plans to cover services for ASD along with improved awareness have likely contributed to the increase in ASD prevalence estimates as well as the increased diagnosis of milder cases of ASD in the US ( 6 , 20 , 21 ). While there was only a modest increase in prevalence immediately after the mandates, there have been additional increases later as health care professionals better understood the regulatory and reimbursement process. The increase in prevalence may also be due to changes in reporting practices. One study in Denmark found the majority of increase in ASD prevalence from 1980–1991 was based on changes of diagnostic criteria and inclusion of outpatient data, rather than a true increase in ASD prevalence ( 21 ).

ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, but its diagnosis is far from uniform across these groups. Caucasian children are consistently identified with ASD more often than black or Hispanic children ( 6 ). While the differences appear to be decreasing, the continued discrepancy may be due to stigma, lack of access to healthcare services, and a patient’s primary language being one other than English.

ASD is more common in males ( 22 , 23 ) but in a recent meta-analysis ( 24 ), true male-to-female ratio is closer to 3:1 than the previously reported 4:1, though this study was not done using the DSM-5 criteria. This study also suggested that girls who meet criteria for ASD are at higher risk of not receiving a clinical diagnosis. The female autism phenotype may play a role in girls being misdiagnosed, diagnosed later, or overlooked. Not only are females less likely to present with overt symptoms, they are more likely to mask their social deficits through a process called “camouflaging”, further hindering a timely diagnosis ( 25 ). Likewise, gender biases and stereotypes of ASD as a male disorder could also hamper diagnoses in girls ( 26 ).

Several genetic diagnoses have an increased rate of co-occurring ASD compared to the average population, including fragile X, tuberous sclerosis, Down syndrome, Rett syndrome, among others; however, these known genetic disorders account for a very small amount of overall ASD cases ( 27 - 30 ). Studies of children with sex chromosome aneuploidy describe a specific social functioning profile in males that suggests more vulnerability to autism ( 22 , 23 , 31 , 32 ). With the increased use of chromosomal microarray, several sites (chromosome X, 2, 3, 7, 15, 16, 17, and 22 in particular) have proven to be associated with increased ASD risk ( 28 ).

Other risk factors for ASD include increased parental age and prematurity ( 33 - 35 ). This could be due to the theory that older gametes have a higher probability of carrying mutations which could result in additional obstetrical complications, including prematurity ( 36 ).

ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain. Ongoing research continues to deepen our understanding of potential etiologic mechanisms in ASD, but currently no single unifying cause has been elucidated.

Neuropathologic studies are limited, but have revealed differences in cerebellar architecture and connectivity, limbic system abnormalities, and frontal and temporal lobe cortical alterations, along with other subtle malformations ( 28 , 37 , 38 ). A small explorative study of neocortical architecture from young children revealed focal disruption of cortical laminar architecture in the majority of subjects, suggesting problems with cortical layer formation and neuronal differentiation ( 39 ). Brain overgrowth both in terms of cortical size and additionally in terms of increased extra-axial fluid have been described in children with ASD and are areas of ongoing study both in terms of furthering our understanding of its etiology, but also as a potential biomarker ( 40 , 41 ).

Genetic factors play a role in ASD susceptibility, with siblings of patients with ASD carrying an increased risk of diagnosis when compared to population norms, and a much higher, although not absolute, concordance of autism diagnosis in monozygotic twins ( 42 - 44 ).

Genome wide association studies and whole exome sequencing methods have broadened our understanding of ASD susceptibility genes, and learning more regarding the function of these genes can shed light on potential biologic mechanisms ( 45 ). For example candidate genes in ASD include those that play a role in brain development or neurotransmitter function, or genes that affect neuronal excitability ( 46 , 47 ). Many of the genetic defects associated with ASD encode proteins that are relevant at the neuronal synapse or that are involved in activity-dependent changes in neurons, including regulatory proteins such as transcription factors ( 42 , 48 ). Potential “networks” of ASD genetic risk convergence include pathways involved in neurotransmission and neuroinflammation ( 49 ). Transcriptional and splicing dysregulation or alterations in epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation or histone acetylation and modification may play a role ( 42 , 49 - 51 ). A recent study describes 16 newly identified genes associated with ASD that raise new potential mechanisms including cellular cytoskeletal structure and ion transport ( 52 ). Ultimately, ASD remains one of the most genetically heterogeneous neuropsychiatric disorders with rarer de novo and inherited variants in over 700 genes ( 53 ).

While genetics clearly play a role in ASD’s etiology, phenotypic expression of genetic susceptibility remains extremely variable within ASD ( 54 ). Genetic risk may be modulated by prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal environmental factors in some patients ( 35 ). Prenatal exposure to thalidomide and valproic acid have been reported to increase risk, while studies suggest that prenatal supplements of folic acid in patients exposed to antiepileptic drugs may reduce risk ( 55 - 57 ). Research has not confirmed if a small positive trial of folinic acid in autism can be used to recommend supplementation more broadly ( 58 ). Advanced maternal and paternal age have both been shown to have an increased risk of having a child with ASD ( 59 ). Maternal history of autoimmune disease, such as diabetes, thyroid disease, or psoriasis has been postulated, but study results remain mixed ( 60 , 61 ). Maternal infection or immune activation during pregnancy is another area of interest and may be a potential risk factor according to recent investigations ( 62 - 65 ). Both shorter and longer inter-pregnancy intervals have also been reported to increase ASD risk ( 66 ). Infants born prematurely have been demonstrated to carry a higher risk for ASD in addition to other neurodevelopmental disorders ( 34 ). In a prior epidemiologic review, obstetric factors including uterine bleeding, caesarian delivery, low birthweight, preterm delivery, and low Apgar scores were reported to be the few factors more consistently associated with autism ( 67 ). A recent meta-analysis reported several pre, peri and postnatal risk factors that resulted in an elevated relative risk of ASD in offspring ( 35 ), but also revealed significant heterogeneity, resulting in an inability to make true determination regarding the importance of these factors.

Despite the hysteria surrounding the now retracted Lancet article first published in 1998, there is no evidence that vaccines, thimerosal, or mercury is associated with ASD ( 68 - 70 ). In the largest single study to date, there was not an increased risk after measles/mumps/rubella (MMR) vaccination in a nationwide cohort study of Danish children ( 70 ).

Ultimately, research continues to reveal factors that correlate with ASD risk, but no causal determinations have been made. This leaves much room for discovery with investigators continuing to elucidate new variants conveying genetic risk, or new environmental correlates that require further study ( 52 ).

Evaluation in ASD begins with screening of the general pediatric population to identify children at-risk or demonstrating signs suggestive of ASD, following which a diagnostic evaluation is recommended. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines recommend developmental surveillance at 9, 15 and 30 months well child visits and autism specific screening at 18 months and again at 24 or 30 months ( 28 , 71 ). Early red flags for ASD include poor eye contact, poor response to name, lack of showing and sharing, no gesturing by 12 months, and loss of language or social skills. Screening tools for ASD in this population include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised, with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F) and Survey of Wellbeing of Young Children (SWYC) ( 72 , 73 ). Red flags in preschoolers may include limited pretend play, odd or intensely focused interests, and rigidity. School age children may demonstrate concrete or literal thinking, have trouble understanding emotions, and may even show an interest in peers but lack conversational skills or appropriate social approach. If there is suspicion of ASD in these groups, screening tools available include the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) ( 74 - 76 ).

If concerns are raised at screening, primary care clinicians are recommended to refer the child to early intervention if less than 3 years of age or to the public school system for psychoeducational evaluation in order to establish an individual education program (IEP) if the child is three years of age or older. Clinicians should additionally refer the child to a specialist (pediatric neurologist, developmental-behavioral pediatrician, child psychiatrist, licensed child psychologist) for a definitive diagnosis and comprehensive assessment ( 71 ). A comprehensive assessment should include a complete physical exam, including assessment for dysmorphic features, a full neurologic examination with head circumference, and a Wood’s lamp examination of the skin. A parent interview, collection of any outside informant observations, and a direct clinician observation of the child’s current cognitive, language, and adaptive functioning by a clinician experienced with ASD should be components of this comprehensive assessment. ( 28 , 71 , 77 , 78 ).

Additionally, primary care clinicians need to be aware of (and evaluate for) potential co-occurring conditions in children with ASD. According to a surveillance study of over 2,000 children with ASD, 83% had an additional developmental diagnosis, 10% had at least one psychiatric diagnosis, and 16% at least one neurologic diagnosis ( 79 ). In the past, rates of co-morbid intellectual disability (ID) in patients with ASD were reported from 50% to 70%, with the most recent CDC estimate reported at 31.0% (26.7% to 39.4%) with ID defined as intelligence quotient (IQ) ≤70 ( 6 , 80 ). Other common co-occurring medical conditions include gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, including dietary restrictions and food selectivity, sleep disorders, obesity, and seizures ( 81 - 84 ). Studies using electronic health record (EHR) analysis revealed prevalence of epilepsy ~20% and GI disorders [without inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)] at 10–12% ( 82 ). Epilepsy has been shown to have higher prevalence rates in ASD with comorbid ID and medical disorders of increased risk such as tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) ( 85 - 87 ). GI disorders or GI symptomatology, including diarrhea, constipation, restrictive eating, or reflux, have been shown to be prominent in ASD across multiple studies ( 81 , 82 , 88 , 89 ). Sleep problems have been reported to occur in anywhere from 50% to 73% of patients with ASD with variation in prevalence dependent on the definition of sleep symptoms or the measurement tool used ( 90 - 92 ). Rates of overweight and obesity in ASD are reported to be roughly 33% and 18% respectively, higher than rates in typically developing children ( 81 - 84 , 93 ).

Other behavioral or psychiatric co-occurring conditions in ASD include anxiety, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive compulsive disorder, and mood disorders or other disruptive behavior disorders ( 81 ). Rates of co-occurring ADHD are reported anywhere from 25% to 81% ( 81 , 94 ). A recent meta-analysis of 30 studies measuring rates of anxiety and 29 studies measuring rates of depression reported a high degree of heterogeneity from the current literature, but stated pooled lifetime prevalence for adults with ASD to be 42% for any anxiety disorder and 37% for any depressive disorder, though the use of self-report measures and the presence of ID could influence estimates ( 95 ). In children with ASD seeking treatment, the rate of any anxiety disorder was found to be similar at 42% and in addition this study reported co-morbid oppositional defiant disorder at a rate of 46% and mood disorders at 8%, with 66% of the sample of over 600 patients having more than one co-occurring condition ( 94 ).

Currently no clear ASD biomarkers or diagnostic measures exist, and the diagnosis is made based on fulfillment of descriptive criteria. In light of a relatively high yield in patients with ASD, clinical genetic testing is recommended and can provide information regarding medical interventions or work up that might be necessary and help with family planning ( 96 ). The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMGG) guidelines currently recommend chromosomal microarray for all children, fragile X testing in males, and additional gene sequencing, including PTEN and MECP2 , in certain patients as first tier genetic testing in the work up of ASD ( 97 ). High resolution G-banded karyotype, once recommended for all patients with ASD, is no longer routinely indicated based on recent consensus recommendations, but might still be performed in patients with a family or reproductive history suggestive of chromosomal rearrangements or specific syndromes such as sex chromosome anomalies or Trisomy 21 ( 96 - 98 ). Several professional societies recommend genetic testing for ASD, including the American Academy of Neurology, the AAP, ACMGG, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and a child may require further referral to a geneticist and/or genetic counselor, depending on results of testing ( 25 , 28 , 97 , 99 ). As the field of genetics continues to advance rapidly, recent publications suggest whole exome sequencing may become the preferred method for clinical genetic testing in individuals with ASD ( 100 , 101 ).

Aside from genetic testing, no other laboratory work up is routinely recommended for every patient with a diagnosis of ASD. However, further evaluation may be appropriate for patients with particular findings or risk factors. Metabolic work-up should be considered in patients with any of the following concerning symptoms or signs: a history of clear developmental regression including loss or plateau of motor skills; hypotonia; recurrent episodes of vomiting, lethargy or hypoglycemia; microcephaly or poor growth; concern for other organ involvement; coarse features; or concern for seizures or ataxia. Based on the patient’s history and presentation, components of a metabolic laboratory evaluation could include complete blood count (CBC), liver and renal function tests, lactate, pyruvate, carnitine, amino acids, an acylcarnitine profile, urine organic acids and/or urine glycosaminoglycans ( 97 , 102 ). Children with a history of pica should have a lead level measured ( 28 , 103 ). In a child with significantly restricted food intake, one should consider a laboratory evaluation of nutritional status. Sleep symptoms may warrant a referral for a possible sleep study, and if restless sleep symptoms are present, an evaluation for iron deficiency is not unreasonable, particularly if dietary rigidity limits iron intake ( 104 ).

Neuroimaging is not routinely recommended for every patient with ASD ( 28 , 99 ), but may be appropriate in patients with a suspicion for TSC or other neurocutaneous disorders, microcephaly, or an abnormal neurologic exam (spasticity, severe hypotonia, unilateral findings). Patients with suspected seizures should have an electroencephalography (EEG) obtained ( 102 ). If accessible, it might be appropriate to immediately refer children with concern for further genetic, metabolic or neurologic conditions to a specialist who can then obtain and interpret the aforementioned testing. At this time there is inadequate evidence to recommend routine testing for celiac disease, immunologic or neurochemical markers, mitochondrial disorders, allergy testing, hair analysis, intestinal permeability studies, erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase studies, stool analysis, urinary peptides or vitamin and mineral deficiencies without a history of severe food selectivity.

ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. Recent changes to the diagnostic criteria occurred with the transition to the new diagnostic manual (DSM-5) and will likely impact prevalence, which currently stands at 1 in 59 children in the US. ASD is a neurobiological disorder influenced by both genetic and environmental factors affecting the developing brain. Research continues to reveal factors that correlate with ASD risk and these findings may guide further etiologic investigation, but no final causal pathway has been elucidated. Clinical evaluation begins with developmental screening of the general pediatric population to identify at-risk children, followed by referral to a specialist for a definitive diagnosis and comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Children with ASD should also be screened for common co-morbid diagnoses. While no clear biomarkers or diagnostic measures exist, clinical genetic testing is recommended as part of the initial medical evaluation. Further medical work up or subspecialist referrals may be pursued based on specific patient characteristics.

Acknowledgments

Funding: None.

Ethical Statement : The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Conflicts of Interest : The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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A Guide to Identifying and Understanding Scientific Research About Autism

Whether you are an individual with autism or a parent to a loved one with an autism spectrum disorder, you may want to stay informed about scientific research related to ASD. You can find information on the internet and other media channels, but how accurate is that information? Knowing how to understand scientific research studies can help you find reliable and relevant information. 

This article is a tool to help you assess information about autism based on scientific principles. As you put these recommendations into practice, remember to use critical thinking and common sense when assessing any claim about autism. Combining an understanding of scientific research studies with your own powers of reasoning can help you: 

• Make evidence-based decisions
• Understand recommendations from your care team and discuss them knowledgeably
• Minimize overwhelm
• Advocate for yourself or your family member with autism. 

Good autism research – like all medical research – meets three criteria: It is based on scientific principles and procedures, it has been peer-reviewed, and the study is able to be replicated. We’ll explore each of these criteria in more detail below.

Special thanks to Anissa Ryland and the staff of The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development for helping to develop some of the guidelines and information included in this article. 

What is a peer-reviewed study?

Peer-review is a process that academic journals use to understand if the studies they publish are based on good research. Before including a study in their publication, the journal sends the research out to other experts in the field. 

Experts who were not involved in the original study check that the study design applies scientific principles and procedures. They also use their own knowledge of the subject to determine whether the results and conclusions make sense based on available data. The editor of the journal takes their recommendations into account when deciding whether to publish the study. 

Some scientific journals have been in print longer than others or are more respected in their field. Readers can use a metric called an impact factor to decide if the journal that printed a particular study is a reliable source of information. The Impact factor is the total number of times articles from that journal were cited, divided by the total number of citable articles in that journal during that span of time. 

The impact factors of various journals are calculated and printed yearly in Journal Citation Reports . You can find the current impact factor of most journals with a quick web search. Keep in mind that a journal must exist for at least two years before its impact factor can be calculated. 

Where to find research

Many groups, organizations, and individuals write about autism. Whenever you come across a new treatment or new information about autism, you can check the validity by seeking out original sources. 

Places to find original sources: 

• Google Scholar
• University websites
• Journal websites

Some of these research aggregation services are free, others cost money. For paid services, check with your local library to see if they can connect you with a free account. You can also ask your clinician to provide you with research related to specific treatments, comorbidities, and symptoms

Types of studies

You may come across several different types of studies as you read and learn about autism. Each study type can be used to investigate topics related to autism, but some have a wider application than others. Get to know the different study types so you can think critically about how the research applies to you or your child with autism. 

• Animal and Cell Studies – Observe and test animals or cell cultures. These types of studies provide initial insight, but the application to humans may not be clear. 
• Case Reports – A written record on a single subject. Each case study represents an individual experience. This can be a starting point for research. It does not prove that what worked for one individual will work for others. 
• Case Series – A group of case reports that track multiple subjects. Remember that correlation is not causation. That means that two things can happen around the same time, but that doesn’t prove one caused the other. 
• Case-Control Studies – Look at the experiences of two groups of subjects, one group with autism and one without. The investigation is retrospective, meaning it looks at experiences in the past and attempts to draw conclusions. Causation is hard to prove with this type of study.
• Cohort Studies – Track two groups, ex. One group of people with autism and one group without or one group that receives treatment and one that does not. It notes differences in outcomes for the two groups.
• Randomized Controlled Trials – Randomly assigns subjects to either a test group or a control group. The test group receives the treatment while the control group receives a placebo. This type of study can be blind (study subjects don’t know which group they’re in) or double-blind (experimenters also don’t know which group the subjects are in).
• Systematic Review – Compares and contrasts the results of several randomized controlled trials and draws conclusions based on the quality of the study and on their results. 

Assessing information about autism and autism treatments

The following questions will help you use what you’ve learned to assess information about autism and autism treatments. Remember that critical thinking skills are your most valuable tools in assessing any claim about autism spectrum disorder. 

What is the source of this information? Blog posts, books, pamphlets, social media posts, websites, news stories, or other non-journal sources can bring information to your attention, but it’s up to you to check their sources. Is the information based on studies and research or is it the opinion of the author?

Who performed this research? What people, groups, universities, or businesses were involved in this study? Do they have a track record of producing reliable autism research? 

Who funded this research? Does the researcher or institution have any conflicts of interest that I should be aware of? What businesses, funding sources, products, or services, might benefit from the results of this study?

Has the research been peer-reviewed? Does it appear in a peer-reviewed journal? What is the impact factor of that journal? 

Has it been replicated? Have other scientists used the same method to achieve the same results? If not, why not? Be cautious about accepting any claim that has not been tested by other researchers or studies.

What other works are cited in the study? Are the researchers basing their work on good science? Have they cited earlier studies published in peer-reviewed journals?

Reading and assessing biomedical research studies takes practice. Navigating autism research can be overwhelming at first, but critical thinking and common sense, along with the knowledge you’ve gained in this article, can help you assess information. Stop and think whenever you read a new statement about autism treatments, possible causes, or potential outcomes. Before acting on any new information go to the source to check the validity of the claim. 

For more on understanding autism research, watch this webinar from The Johnson Center.

Scientific Research Glossary

Autism and Sleep – Research Updates

autismAdmin 2024-07-10T10:12:13-05:00 April 17th, 2024 | Autism Spectrum Disorders , News , Sleep Issues , Ways to Help , Webinar |

Dara S. Manoach, Ph.D., discusses research updates on autism and sleep. She outlines aspects of a good night’s sleep and emphasizes the role of sleep cycles in cognition, memory, and learning.

Animal study reveals clues that developmental vitamin D deficiency may be associated with gut alterations in autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:44:50-05:00 September 25th, 2023 | News |

Vitamin D deficiency is strongly implicated as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and researchers in Australia report evidence that vitamin D deficiency during early development may increase the likelihood

New multi-national study adds to evidence linking alterations of the gut microbiome to autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:46:00-05:00 August 29th, 2023 | News |

Strong new evidence linking alterations of the gut microbiome to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) comes from a new multi-national study by James Morton and colleagues. In the study, researchers in North America,

Editorial: Revisiting Two Lesser-Known Teaching Strategies to Enhance Speech Production in Autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:46:44-05:00 August 29th, 2023 | News |

In this editorial, I would like to shed light on two methods for improving the speech production of individuals on the autism spectrum, discuss potential neurological factors that may underlie their effectiveness,

Sleep problems in infancy associated with ASD, autism traits, and social attention alterations

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:47:35-05:00 July 20th, 2023 | News |

A new study from the United Kingdom indicates that sleep problems in infancy may help to predict later social skills deficits, autism traits, and autism diagnoses in children. Jannath Begum-Ali and colleagues

Constipation in infancy associated with higher likelihood of autism diagnosis

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:48:23-05:00 June 26th, 2023 | News |

More evidence linking autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to gastrointestinal problems comes from a study by researchers in Taiwan and the United States, who report that ASD occurs at an elevated rate in

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Autism Research Activities and Advances

NICHD's autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research portfolio is spread throughout the Institute and includes extramural components that support research on ASD and other  intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs) . NICHD also conducts some autism-related research projects through its intramural program.

In addition, several extramural and intramural entities within NICHD sponsor or conduct research that is not autism-focused but that can inform our understanding of the developmental and molecular processes involved in autism pathophysiology. Some of these efforts are described below.

Institute Activities and Advances

Recent findings.

• A longitudinal study of parent-reported sensory responsiveness in toddlers at-risk for autism (PMID: 30350375 )
• Potential for digital behavioral measurement tools to transform the detection and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (PMID: 30715131 )
• Restricted and repetitive behavior and brain functional connectivity in infants at risk for developing autism spectrum disorder (PMID: 30446435 )
• Language delay aggregates in toddler siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (PMID: 30348077 )
• Automatic emotion and attention analysis of young children at home: a ResearchKit autism feasibility study  
• Parent support of preschool peer relationships in younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (PMID: 28634707 )
• Walking, gross motor development, and brain functional connectivity in infants and toddlers (PMID: 29186388 )

As one of the participants in the government-wide Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee (IACC) , NICHD's support for autism research is structured around the seven question areas of IACC's strategic plan for autism research :

• Question 1: When Should I Be Concerned?
• Question 2: How Can I Understand What Is Happening?
• Question 3: What Caused This to Happen and Can It Be Prevented?
• Question 4: Which Treatments and Interventions Will Help?
• Question 5: Where Can I Turn for Services?
• Question 6: What Does the Future Hold, Particularly for Adults?
• Question 7: What Other Infrastructure and Surveillance Needs Must Be Met?

NICHD supports and conducts research in all seven areas, with particular support for research relevant to questions 1 and 2.

Much of NICHD's autism research is conducted through the trans-NIH Autism Centers of Excellence (ACE) Program . The ACE project, established in 2007, was a consolidation of two previous research efforts—the NICHD-led Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism and the Studies to Advance Autism Research and Treatment . ACE was intended to better coordinate autism research across the NIH.

IACC Question 1: Diagnosis of ASD

NICHD-supported research related to IACC Question 1 aims to develop and improve screening and diagnostic tools for ASD. The  Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Branch (IDDB)  supports extramural research exploring ways to validate and improve screening and diagnosis tools for ASD, such as the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), an effective screening tool for children aged 16 months to 2½ years. The Branch also supports the development of new screening tools, especially those for children younger than age 24 months, and the development of instruments for assessing symptoms and daily function of people with ASD.

The IDDB also supports studies that may inform the development of new screening tools in the future. IDDB-funded research tracks the anatomical, functional, emotional, communicative, and behavioral characteristics of infants at high risk for ASD over time in order to develop and improve the long-term accuracy of diagnostic and prognostic tools for ASD. The Branch also supports systematic efforts to identify genetic variants associated with autism, with the eventual goal of developing a new early diagnosis and classification system. IDDB-supported research studies also address the development of the linguistic and sensory symptoms of ASD throughout childhood, which may also inform screening tools.

• IDDB-supported findings: Researchers worked with health care providers to screen more than 15,000 low-risk toddlers using an updated version of MCHAT, the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers—Revised, with Follow-Up (M-CHAT–R/F) and found it to be more accurate than earlier versions at identifying children who could benefit from further evaluation . ( PMID: 24366990 )

The IDDB's research support is complemented by support from the Child Development and Behavior Branch (CDBB) for research on the processes of normal development. Data on the development of joint attention, social orientation, and emotional function and communications provide important benchmarks for understanding how early deficits in these skills develop in ASD.

NICHD's intramural scientists also conduct research relevant to this IACC question. Through its Epidemiology Branch , within the Division of Population Health Research (DiPHR) , the Institute is active in the assessment of the M-CHAT for ASD and other developmental screening algorithms. The DiPHR has also conducted research on the patterns of growth, physical development, and hormone levels throughout childhood in autism.

IACC Question 2: Biology of ASD

Several extramural branches of NICHD support research on disorders of neurologic and behavioral development, such as autism, by characterizing the developmental processes, cognitive processes, sensory and motor systems, and molecular and neural mechanisms that are relevant in the biology of the condition and its symptoms.

For instance, the IDDB supports research on the biology of ASD, including studies of the developmental processes underlying ASD biology throughout childhood. This research aims to characterize the cognitive and sensory/motor deficits in ASD, such as difficulties in recognizing emotion in faces and speech and the dysfunction in perceiving time or the differences between sounds. The Branch also supports research on the molecular and neurological underpinnings of ASD in humans as well as in model organisms. Funded research also delineates the function of genes and risk for ASD in brain development and function and maps the altered biochemical pathways and neural networks in brains of people with ASD to determine how these biological characteristics are correlated with behaviors or symptoms.

The IDDB is also interested in research on the biological processes that ASD has in common between ASD with comorbid or causative genetic conditions, such as Fragile X syndrome , t syndrome , Angelman syndrome, and Prader-Willi syndrome . The Branch also funds research to find or characterize subtypes of autism, by identifying new genes related to ASD risk and correlating known risk genes with brain structure and function and symptoms.

In addition, the CDBB's  Developmental Cognitive Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, and Psychobiology Program funds studies to identify and characterize the pathways involved in brain development and behavior, including those in the sensory, motor, linguistic, cognitive, and social behavioral domains, all of which are disrupted in ASD. The Branch's studies of typically developing children serve as an important benchmark for understanding the differences found in children with ASD.

The  /about/org/der/branches/dbcab  also supports research on normal and abnormal development relating to the causes and prevention of congenital and genetic defects, as well as research training in relevant academic and medical areas, with an emphasis on the biochemical, genetic, and cellular mechanisms of early development that can be disrupted in disorders like ASD.

The  Section on Cellular and Synaptic Physiology , within the Division of Intramural Research (DIR)   Neurosciences Affinity Group , focuses on the development and regulation of synapses in the cortex and hippocampus. Networks in these areas are disrupted in ASD and other brain disorders.

IACC Question 3: Causes and Preventions of ASD

The IDDB is a major supporter of human and animal studies on the causes of ASD, including investigation of the processes and pathways associated with ASD, autism symptoms, common co-morbidities, and protective factors for ASD. One large area of IDDB support is genetics and epigenetics. The Branch funds studies of the identification, expression, regulation, and interactions of gene variants linked to ASD and autism-related behaviors and symptoms. The IDDB also supports research on potential environmental risk factors and biomarkers for ASD, including gene-environment interactions.

In addition, two laboratories within the DIR conduct research relevant to the biology of ASD:

• The Section on Molecular y conducts research on a potential new endophenotype of ASD related to hypocholesterolemia.
• The Section on Clinical Genomics uses a cell-culture model to study neuronal networks in autism. Its research also examines the expression of non-coding RNA in the brain in autism.

IACC Question 4: Interventions for ASD

The IDDB supports research on the development and evaluation of therapies and treatments for ASD, ASD symptoms, and related disorders, such as Fragile X syndrome , as well as the long-term effects of these interventions. Potential treatment targets include repetitive behavior, joint attention, social skills, emotional sharing, symbolic understanding, language and communication, irritability and anxiety, and insistence on sameness. Researchers working in human subjects and animal models consider a range of treatment types, from behavioral and educational interventions to pharmaceutical treatments, including comprehensive treatments that combine behavior and medication.

• IDDB-supported findings: A recent ACE network study found that directing the attention of preschool-aged children with ASD increased the children's vocabularies and language skills by the time they were age 8, compared to a control. In the intervention, adults actively engaged the children's attention by pointing to toys and using other gestures.

IACC Question 5: Services for People with ASD

As a research agency, NICHD focuses its efforts on evaluating services—how they are delivered or how effective they are, for example—rather than on providing services. For instance, the IDDB supports a few studies of methods to develop or improve services for people with ASD, including services related to teaching life skills and ensuring physical safety of people with ASD.

IACC Question 6: Health Over the Lifespan with ASD

Most NICHD research addresses the early biological origins of ASD, meaning that efforts related to this question are handled by other agencies. However, through the IDDB, NICHD supports one study related to this question, focused on teaching social skills to adolescents with high-functioning ASD.

IACC Question 7: Infrastructure for ASD Research

Much of the Institute's work within this area is related to support of the ACE program. In 2012, NIH awarded $100 million to continue support of the program. The Institute also supports other projects related to ASD research infrastructure, including the National Database for Autism Research, Brain and Tissue Bank, and NeuroBioBank resources that are described in the Other Activities and Advances section below.

Other Activities and Advances

To achieve its goals for autism research, NICHD supports a variety of other activities related to autism. Some of these activities are managed through the components listed above; others are part of NIH-wide or collaborative efforts in which NICHD participates. Some of these are listed below:

• The  Autism Centers of Excellence (ACE) Program  is the trans-NIH research effort on ASD.
• The Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism (CPEAs)/Studies to Advance Autism Research & Treatment (STAART) Centers conducted and supported studies on the causes, diagnosis, prevention, detection, and treatment of ASD. These Networks were consolidated in 2007 into the ACE Program to enable pooling of resources and maximum coordination and efficiency for autism research across the NIH.
• NICHD's Eunice Kennedy Shriver Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Centers are located at 15 universities and children's hospitals throughout the country and aim to advance understanding of a variety of conditions and topics related to IDDs.
• The Fragile X Syndrome Research Center Program , funded by the IDDB, supports research to improve the diagnosis and treatment of Fragile X syndrome and related conditions.
• The government-wide  Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee (IACC)  includes representatives from NICHD.
• The  National Database for Autism Research  includes relevant data at all levels of biological and behavioral organization (i.e., molecules, genes, neural tissues, social and environmental interactions) and for all data types (e.g., text, numeric, image, time series).
• The NIH NeuroBio Bank is a network of brain and tissue banks in the United States that collect, examine, and store tissues; the banks also make the tissues available to scientists for research on brain disorders.

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Collaborative research cracks the autism code, making the neurodivergent brain visible

by Jennifer McManamay, University of Virginia

A multi-university research team co-led by University of Virginia engineering professor Gustavo K. Rohde has developed a system that can spot genetic markers of autism in brain images with 89 to 95% accuracy.

Their findings suggest that doctors may one day see, classify and treat autism and related neurological conditions with this method, without having to rely on or wait for behavioral cues. And that means this truly personalized medicine could result in earlier interventions.

"Autism is traditionally diagnosed behaviorally but has a strong genetic basis. A genetics-first approach could transform understanding and treatment of autism," the researchers wrote in a paper published in the journal Science Advances .

Rohde, a professor of biomedical and electrical and computer engineering, collaborated with researchers from the University of California San Francisco and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, including Shinjini Kundu, Rohde's former Ph.D. student and first author of the paper.

While working in Rohde's lab, Kundu—now a physician at the Johns Hopkins Hospital—helped develop a generative computer modeling technique called transport-based morphometry, or TBM, which is at the heart of the team's approach.

Using a novel mathematical modeling technique, their system reveals brain structure patterns that predict variations in certain regions of the individual's genetic code—a phenomenon called "copy number variations," in which segments of the code are deleted or duplicated. These variations are linked to autism.

TBM allows the researchers to distinguish normal biological variations in brain structure from those associated with the deletions or duplications.

"Some copy number variations are known to be associated with autism, but their link to brain morphology—in other words, how different types of brain tissues, such as gray or white matter , are arranged in our brain—is not well known," Rohde said. "Finding out how CNV relates to brain tissue morphology is an important first step in understanding autism's biological basis."

How TBM cracks the code

Transport-based morphometry is different from other machine-learning image analysis models because the mathematical models are based on mass transport—the movement of molecules such as proteins, nutrients and gases in and out of cells and tissues. "Morphometry" refers to measuring and quantifying the biological forms created by these processes.

Most machine learning methods, Rohde said, have little or no relation to the biophysical processes that generate the data. They rely instead on recognizing patterns to identify anomalies.

But Rohde's approach uses mathematical equations to extract the mass transport information from medical images, creating new images for visualization and further analysis.

Then, using a different set of mathematical methods, the system parses information associated with autism-linked CNV variations from other "normal" genetic variations that do not lead to disease or neurological disorders—what the researchers call "confounding sources of variability."

These sources previously prevented researchers from understanding the "gene-brain-behavior" relationship, effectively limiting care providers to behavior-based diagnoses and treatments.

According to Forbes magazine, 90% of medical data is in the form of imaging, which we don't have the means to unlock. Rohde believes TBM is the skeleton key.

"As such, major discoveries from such vast amounts of data may lie ahead if we utilize more appropriate mathematical models to extract such information."

The researchers used data from participants in the Simons Variation in Individuals Project, a group of subjects with the autism-linked genetic variation.

Control-set subjects were recruited from other clinical settings and matched for age, sex, handedness and non-verbal IQ while excluding those with related neurological disorders or family histories.

"We hope that the findings, the ability to identify localized changes in brain morphology linked to copy number variations, could point to brain regions and eventually mechanisms that can be leveraged for therapies," Rohde said.

Additional co-authors are Haris Sair of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Elliott H. Sherr and Pratik Mukherjee of the University of California San Francisco's Department of Radiology.

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Vaccines and Autism

Vaccines & Autism Q&A

English | Spanish

The Wakefield studies

Two studies have been cited by those claiming that the MMR vaccine causes autism. Both studies are critically flawed.

First study

In 1998, Andrew Wakefield and colleagues published a paper in the journal  Lancet . Wakefield's hypothesis was that the measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine caused a series of events that include intestinal inflammation, entrance into the bloodstream of proteins harmful to the brain, and consequent development of autism. In support of his hypothesis, Dr. Wakefield described 12 children with developmental delay — eight had autism. All of these children had intestinal complaints and developed autism within one month of receiving MMR.

The Wakefield paper published in 1998 was flawed for two reasons:

• About 90% of children in England received MMR at the time this paper was written. Because MMR is administered at a time when many children are diagnosed with autism, it would be expected that most children with autism would have received an MMR vaccine, and that many would have received the vaccine recently. The observation that some children with autism recently received MMR is, therefore, expected. However, determination of whether MMR causes autism is best made by studying the incidence of autism in  both  vaccinated and unvaccinated children. This wasn't done.
• Although the authors claim that autism is a consequence of intestinal inflammation, intestinal symptoms were observed  after , not before, symptoms of autism in all eight cases.

This study was subsequently retracted; in scientific terms, this means that the paper is not part of the scientific record because it was found to be based on scientific misconduct. In this case, the studies were deemed fraudulent and data misrepresented.

Second study

In 2002, Wakefield and coworkers published a second paper examining the relationship between measles virus and autism. The authors tested intestinal biopsy samples for the presence of measles virus from children with and without autism. Seventy-five of 91 children with autism were found to have measles virus in intestinal biopsy tissue as compared with only 5 of 70 patients who didn't have autism. On its surface, this was a concerning result. However, the second Wakefield paper was also critically flawed for the following reasons:

• Measles vaccine virus is live and attenuated. After inoculation, the vaccine virus probably replicates (or reproduces itself) about 15 to 20 times. Measles vaccine virus is likely to be taken up by specific cells responsible for virus uptake and presentation to the immune system (termed antigen-presenting cells or APCs). Because all APCs are mobile, and can travel throughout the body (including the intestine), it is plausible that a child immunized with MMR would have measles virus detected in intestinal tissues using a very sensitive assay. To determine if MMR is associated with autism, one must determine if the finding is  specific  for children with autism. Therefore, children with or without autism must be identical in two ways. First, children with or without autism must be matched for immunization status (i.e., receipt of the MMR vaccine). Second, children must be matched for the length of time between receipt of MMR vaccine and collection of biopsy specimens. Although this information was clearly available to the investigators and critical to their hypothesis, it was specifically omitted from the paper.
• Because natural measles virus is still circulating in England, it would have been important to determine whether the measles virus detected in these samples was natural measles virus or vaccine virus. Although methods are available to distinguish these two types of virus, the authors chose not to use them.
• The method used to detect measles virus in these studies was very sensitive. Laboratories that work with natural measles virus (such as the lab where these studies were performed) are at high risk of getting results that are incorrectly positive. No mention is made in the paper as to how this problem was avoided.
• As is true for all laboratory studies, the person who is performing the test should not know whether the sample is obtained from a case with autism or without autism (blinding). No statements were made in the methods section to assure that blinding occurred.

Studies showing that MMR vaccine does not cause autism

Several studies have been performed that disprove the notion that MMR causes autism.

Brent Taylor and co-workers

In 1999, Brent Taylor and co-workers examined the relationship between receipt of MMR and development of autism in an excellent, well-controlled study. Taylor examined the records of 498 children with autism or autism-like disorder.

Cases were identified by registers from the North Thames region of England before and after the MMR vaccine was introduced into the United Kingdom in 1988. Taylor then examined the incidence and age at diagnosis of autism in vaccinated and unvaccinated children. He found that:

• The percentage of children vaccinated was the same in children with autism as in other children in the North Thames region.
• No difference in the age of diagnosis of autism was found in vaccinated and unvaccinated children.
• The onset of symptoms of autism did not occur within two, four, or six months of receiving the MMR vaccine.

Madsen and colleagues

One of the best studies was performed by Madsen and colleagues in Denmark between 1991 and 1998 and reported in the  New England Journal of Medicine . The study included 537,303 children representing 2,129,864 person-years of study. Approximately 82% of children had received the MMR vaccine. The group of children was selected from the Danish Civil Registration System, vaccination status was obtained from the Danish National Board of Health, and children with autism were identified from the Danish Central Register. The risk of autism in the group of vaccinated children was the same as that in unvaccinated children. Furthermore, there was no association between the age at the time of vaccination, the time since vaccination, or the date of vaccination and the development of autism.

Subsequent studies and meta-analysis have corroborated the findings that the MMR vaccine does not cause autism.

Watch as Dr. Offit talks about vaccines and autism in this short video, part of the Talking about Vaccines with Dr. Paul Offit video series.

Paul Offit, MD:  Hi, my name is Paul Offit. I’m talking to you today from the Vaccine Education Center at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia.

I think probably one of the most common concerns parents have about vaccines is, do they cause autism? Certainly, very easy to find that contention on the internet and in chat rooms, so it can be scary. And I think from the parents’ stand point, they argue this, “Look, my child was fine, they got a vaccine, now they've developed signs and symptoms of autism. Could the vaccine have done it?”

Well, the good news is that’s an answerable question. And it’s really been in three different areas that this issue has been raised. One is the concern that the combination measles-mumps-rubella, or MMR, vaccine caused autism. The second is the notion that there was an ethyl-mercury containing preservative that was in a number of vaccines, now it’s only in some multi-dose vials of influenza vaccine, called thimerosal. And the third sort of concern is that children are just getting too many vaccines too soon, that that’s somehow weakening, or overwhelming, or perturbing their immune system. Well, these are studiable questions; you can answer this question. So, for example in the case of measles, mumps and rubella, there now have been 18 studies done in seven different countries, on three different continents, involving hundreds of thousands of children who either did or didn’t get the MMR vaccine, making sure that those two groups are otherwise similar with regard to their healthcare-seeking behavior, their socioeconomic background, their medical background, and again, and again, and again those studies all found the same thing — that the MMR vaccine did not cause autism, and that’s been true also for these other two concerns.

The good news is I think most parents get this. I think most parents believe these studies because a recent study by the Autism Science Foundation found that about 85% of parents of children with autism now are comfortable that vaccines weren’t the cause.

Other information on the causes of autism

One of the best ways to determine whether a particular disease or syndrome is genetic is to examine the incidence in identical and fraternal twins. Using a strict definition of autism, among twins in which one has been diagnosed with autism, approximately 60% of the time an identical twin is also diagnosed, and 0% of the time is a fraternal twin diagnosed with autism. Using a broader definition of autism (i.e., autistic spectrum disorder), these rates rise to approximately 92% in identical twins and about 10% of the time when the twins are fraternal. Therefore, autism clearly has a genetic basis.

"Home-movie" studies

Clues to the causes of autism can be found in studies examining when the symptoms of autism are first evident. Perhaps the best data examining when symptoms of autism are first evident are the "home-movie" studies. These studies took advantage of the fact that many parents take movies of their children during their first birthday (before they have received the MMR vaccine).

Home movies from children who were eventually diagnosed with autism and those who were not diagnosed with autism were coded and shown to developmental specialists. Investigators were, with a very high degree of accuracy, able to separate autistic from non-autistic children at 1 year of age. These studies found that subtle symptoms of autism were present earlier than some parents had suspected, and that receipt of the MMR vaccine did not precede the first symptoms of autism. Other investigators extended the home-movie studies of 1-year-old children to include videotapes of children taken at 2 to 3 months of age.

Timing of first symptoms

Using a sophisticated movement analysis, videos from children eventually diagnosed with autism or not diagnosed with autism were coded and evaluated for their capacity to predict autism. Children who were eventually diagnosed with autism were predicted from movies taken in early infancy. This study supported the hypothesis that very subtle symptoms of autism are present in early infancy and argues strongly against vaccines as a cause of autism.

Structural abnormalities of the nervous system

Toxic or viral insults to the fetus that cause autism, as well as certain central nervous system disorders associated with autism, support the notion that autism is likely to occur in the womb. For example, children exposed to thalidomide during the first or early second trimester were found to have an increased incidence of autism. Thalidomide was a medication that used to be prescribed to pregnant women to treat nausea. However, autism occurred in children with ear, but not arm or leg, abnormalities. Because ears develop before 24 days gestation, and arms and legs develop after 24 days gestation, the risk period for autism following receipt of thalidomide must have been before 24 days gestation. In support of this finding, Rodier and colleagues found evidence for structural abnormalities of the nervous system in children with autism. These abnormalities could only have occurred during development of the nervous system in the womb.

Natural rubella infection

Similarly, children with congenital rubella syndrome are at increased risk for development of autism. Risk is associated with exposure to rubella before birth but not after birth.

Conclusions

The following studies all support the fact that autism occurs during development of the nervous system early in the womb:

• The genetics of autism
• The timing of the first symptoms of autism (home-movie studies)
• The relationship between autism and the receipt of the MMR vaccine
• Structural abnormalities of the nervous system of children with autism
• Thalidomide and natural rubella infection

Unfortunately, for current and future parents of children with autism, the controversy surrounding vaccines has caused attention and resources to focus away from a number of promising leads.

The  Autism Science Foundation  is a non-profit organization that follows the developments related to autism; in particular, making sure that the studies are scientifically sound. Their website provides up-to-date information about what is known about the causes of autism.

The Vaccine Education Center has compiled the following resources addressing concerns surrounding vaccine safety as it relates to autism. These materials are based on the scientific findings of many scientists studying hundreds of thousands of children on multiple continents. The one clear and consistent finding is that vaccines do not cause autism.

Print materials

• Vaccines and Autism: What you should know – English  | Spanish
• Thimerosal: What you should know -  English | Spanish
• Too many vaccines: What you should know - English | Spanish
• Aluminum in vaccines: What you should know -  English  | Spanish
• Vaccine ingredients: What you should know -  English | Spanish
• Recommended immunization schedule: What you should know -  English | Spanish
• The Facts About Childhood Vaccines – English | Spanish
• Vaccine Safety and Your Child booklet –  English | Spanish
• Vaccine Safety References
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism?
• Is the MMR Vaccine Safe?
• Pediatricians Discuss Vaccines, Pregnancy, Development & Autism
• Are Combination Vaccines Safe?
• Do Babies Get Too Many Vaccines?
• How Are Vaccines Tested Before They Can Be Given to Kids?
• How Do You Know Whether a Vaccine Has Been Tested Long Enough?

DeStefano, R., T.T. Shimabukuro, The MMR vaccine and autism , Ann Rev Virol (2019) 6: 1.1-1.16. Autism is a developmental disability that can cause significant social, communication, and behavioral challenges. A report published in 1998, but subsequently retracted by the journal, suggested that measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine causes autism. However, autism is a neurodevelopmental condition that has a strong genetic component with genesis before one year of age, when MMR vaccine is typically administered.

Hviid A, Hansen JV, Frisch M, Melbye M. Measles, mumps, rubella vaccination and autism . Ann Int Med 2019; epub ahead of print. The authors evaluated the relationship between receipt of MMR vaccine and the development of autism in more than 650,000 Danish children born between 1999 and 2010. During the study period, about 6,500 children were diagnosed with autism. The authors found no increased risk of autism in those who received one or two doses of MMR vaccine compared with those who didn’t. The authors also found that MMR vaccine did not increase the risk of autism in children with specific risk factors such as maternal age, paternal age, smoking during pregnancy, method of delivery, gestational age, 5-minute APGAR scores, low birthweight, head circumference, and sibling history of autism. Further, by evaluating specific time periods after vaccination, the authors found no evidence for a regressive phenotype triggered by vaccination. The authors concluded that MMR vaccination did not increase the risk for autism or trigger autism in susceptible children.

Jain A, Marshall J, Buikema A, et al. Autism occurrence by MMR vaccine status among US children with older siblings with and without autism . JAMA 2015;313(15):1534-1540. The authors evaluated about 100,000 younger siblings who did or did not receive an MMR vaccine when the older sibling had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). For children with or without older siblings with ASD, there were no differences in the adjusted relative risks of ASD between no doses of MMR, one dose of MMR or two doses of MMR. The authors concluded that receipt of MMR vaccine was not associated with increased risk of ASD even among children whose older siblings had ASD, and, therefore, were presumed to be at higher risk for developing this disorder.

Taylor LE, Swerdfeger AL, Eslick GD.  Vaccines are not associated with autism: an evidence-based meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies . Vaccine 2014;32:3623-3629.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies that examined the relationship between the receipt of vaccines and development of autism. Five cohort studies involving more than 1.2 million children and five case-control studies involving more than 9,000 children were included in the analysis. The authors concluded that vaccinations, components of vaccines (thimerosal), and combination vaccines (MMR) were not associated with the development of autism or autism spectrum disorder.

Hornig M, Briese T, Buie T, et al. Lack of association between measles virus vaccine and autism with enteropathy: a case-control study . PLoS ONE 2008;3(9):e3140. The authors evaluated children with GI disturbances with and without autism to determine if those with autism were more likely to have measles virus RNA or inflammation in bowel tissues and to determine if autism or GI symptoms related temporally to receipt of MMR.  The authors found no differences between patients with and without autism relative to measles virus presence in the ileum and cecum or GI inflammation. GI symptoms and autism onset were unrelated to the receipt of MMR vaccine.

Uchiyama T, Kurosawa M, Inaba Y. MMR-vaccine and regression in autism spectrum disorders: negative results presented from Japan . J Autism Dev Disord 2007;37:210-217. MMR vaccination was only utilized in Japan between 1989 and 1993, given as a single dose between 12 and 72 months of age.  The authors examined the rate of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) involving regressive symptoms in children who did or didn’t receive MMR during that period. No significant differences were found in the incidence of ASD regression between those who did or didn’t receive an MMR vaccine.

Afzal MA, Ozoemena LC, O’Hare A, et al. Absence of detectable measles virus genome sequence in blood of autistic children who have had their MMR vaccination during the routine childhood immunization schedule of UK . J Med Virol 2006;78:623-630. Investigators obtained blood from 15 children diagnosed with autism with developmental regression and a documented previous receipt of MMR vaccine. Measles virus genome was not present in any of the samples tested. The authors concluded that measles vaccine virus was not present in autistic children with developmental regression.

Honda H, Shimizu Y, Rutter M. No effect of MMR withdrawal on the incidence of autism: a total population study . J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005;46(6):572-579. MMR vaccination was only utilized in Japan between 1989 and 1993, given as a single dose between 12 and 72 months of age. The authors found that while MMR vaccination rates declined significantly in the birth cohort of years 1988 through 1992 (~70% in 1988, < 30% in 1991 and < 10% in 1992), the cumulative incidence of ASD up to age 7 years increased significantly. The authors concluded that withdrawal of MMR in countries where it is still being used will not lead to a reduction in the incidence of ASD.

Smeeth L, Cook C, Fombonne E, et al. MMR vaccination and pervasive developmental disorders: a case-control study . Lancet 2004;364:963-969. The authors reviewed a major United Kingdom database for patients diagnosed with autism or other pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) over a 28-year period and similarly aged patients without those diagnoses to determine if the receipt of MMR vaccination was associated with an increased risk of autism or other PDD. They found no association between MMR vaccine and risk of autism or other PDD.

Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, et al. A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism . N Engl J Med 2002;347(19):1477-1482. The authors conducted a retrospective review of all children (> 500,000) born in Denmark between 1991 and 1998 to determine if a link existed between receipt of MMR vaccine and diagnosis of autism or autism spectrum disorders. No association was found between ages at the time of vaccination, the time since vaccination, or the date of vaccination and the development of autistic disorder.

Taylor B, Miller E, Farrington CP, et al. Autism and measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological evidence for a causal association . Lancet 1999;353:2026-2029. The authors determined whether the introduction of MMR vaccine in the United Kingdom in 1988 affected the incidence of autism by examining children born between 1979 and 1998. They found no sudden change in the incidence of autism after introduction of MMR vaccine and no association between receipt of the vaccine and development of autism.

Reviewed by Lori Handy, MD, MSCE, on February 05, 2024