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Case school of engineering.

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Advanced Materials

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$155k | dod office of naval research | | "", $110k | american chemical society | mark de guire | "chemical expansivity in ceramic oxygen transport materials", $100k | nsf | gary wnek | "planning grant: engineering research center for advanced films & packaging", recent publications, 3d interpenetrated graphene foam/58s bioactive glass scaffolds for electrical-stimulation-assisted differentiation of rabbit mesenchymal stem cells to enhance bone regeneration, facile synthesis of nanostructural high-performance cu-pb electrocatalysts for co2 reduction, nanoparticle based simple electrochemical biosensor platform for profiling of protein-nucleic acid interactions, gecko-inspired adhesive.

Gecko-inspired adhesive holds firm in extreme temperatures

Knotty polymers

Unraveling the secrets of knotty polymers

Materials Branch

Explore the materials branch

The range of elements available for device production has exploded in the past 20 years, enabling entirely new classes of electronic and mechanical products, biomedical implants, tissues, coatings and more.

We’re leaders in the world of advanced materials, with three of our school’s seven departments moving this field forward: Materials, Macromolecular Science and Engineering and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. And with our home in Northeast Ohio—a region brimming with material and chemical industry leaders—we collaborate on moving the latest materials technologies quickly from research to use.

Centers and institutes that conduct research in Advanced Materials

Center for Layered Polymeric Systems (CLiPS)

An NSF Science and Technology Center advancing the nation's science and technology agenda through the development of new materials and material systems

Center for the Evaluation of Implant Performance

Advances the science of joint replacement durability and performance through improvements in implant materials and design.

Advanced Manufacturing and Mechanical Reliability Center

Develops and provides mechanical testing for materials using an array of equipment.

Swagelok Center for Surface Analysis of Materials

Provides expert staff and specialized analytical equipment to solve materials characterization challenges encountered in education, research and industry.

Center for Advanced Polymer Processing

Develops new advanced and functional multiphase complex materials and optimizes the performance of existing ones by integrating the most advanced experimental and computational capabilities. 

SDLE Research Center

Studies solar photovoltaic and other outdoor exposed technologies using degradation science, data science and analytics.

Faculty who conduct research in Advanced Materials

Rohan Akolkar

Develops new electrochemical processes for applications including nano-material fabrication, energy storage, electrometallurgy and sensors

Hoda Amani Hamedani

Develops multifunctional materials and flexible nanostructured platforms for electrochemical and biomedical devices, localized drug delivery, neural interfacing, and electrochemical sensing; studies nanomaterials evolution/interactions in controlled (liquid) environments using in-situ characterization techniques

Develops processing-structure-property relationships in polymeric systems; creates micro- and nano-layered films; and produces biomimetic hierarchical structures of soft materials

Harihara Baskaran

Understands and solves problems in biology and medicine using transport principles

Laura Bruckman

Develops predictive lifetime models for materials degradation related to stress conditions and induced degradation mechanisms evaluated by quantitative spectroscopic characterization of materials

Changyong (Chase) Cao

Study the mechanics, designs, and manufacturing of smart multifunctional materials, soft robotics, soft electronics, and self-powered sensing systems.

Laboratory for Soft Machines & Electronics (SME Lab)  www.CaoGroup.org

Jeff Capadona

Engineers biomaterials-based strategies to improve the performance and longevity of central nervous system implanted devices

Jennifer Carter

deformation mechanisms of metals and metal-matrix composites; fatigue, fracture, and creep; failure analysis; electron microscopy; 3D microscopy; novel methodologies for multi-scale material characterization; data science and analytics; open science

Sunniva Collins

Engineers metallic surfaces for improved performance; selects materials and designs manufacturing processes for innovative outcomes

Mark De Guire

Analyzes performance of ceramics in energy applications, including fuel cells and oxygen transport membranes

Christine Duval

Develops separation materials and processes to benefit nuclear medicine, environmental protection, and nuclear waste recycling and remediation.

Steven Eppell

Designs, synthesizes and tests orthopedic biomaterials using biomimetic strategies emphasizing nanoscale structures and self-assembly

Frank Ernst

Studies and engineers microstructures, interfaces and surfaces of metallic materials by novel methods of processing and microcharacterization

Donald Feke

Develops novel polymeric materials and ultrasonic-based separation processes for nano- and microscale multi-phase systems

Roger French

Applies data science and analytics to energy and materials science research problems

Michael Hore

Combines experiments, theory and simulation to study fundamental problems in the polymer physics of grafted and non-linear polymers

Hatsuo Ishida

Develops advanced benzoxazine resins, thermosetting resins based on natural renewable materials and green flame retarding systems

Daniel Lacks

Develops first-principles molecular-scale theories of chemical processes and materials properties

Peter Lagerlof

Develops a unified theory for plastic deformation via slip and deformation twinning

John Lewandowski

Researches material reliability for biomedical and structural applications, advanced materials manufacturing and processing/microstructure/property relationships. Hybrid Autonomous Manufacturing.

Ya-Ting Liao

Creates computational models of combustion, fire and fire behavior and develops fire-resistant structures

Develops multi-scale, complex polymer-based materials, using both experimental and computational-based tools

Ica Manas-Zloczower

Engineering new materials and technologies for industrial applications

Heidi Martin

Develops diamond electrodes for electrochemical and neural device applications

David Matthiesen

Develops process engineering solutions for the manufacturing of new magnetic materials

Jim McGuffin-Cawley

Develops new methodologies for material processing, characterizes processing-property relationships, studies high-temperature diffusion and solid-state reactions, fosters industry-university relationships

Julie Renner

Develops biomolecular platforms to control solid-liquid interfaces and enable a new generation of advanced technologies

Publications

Clare Rimnac

Advances the long-term performance of implants and structural bone allografts through material analysis and characterization

Valentin Rodionov

Investigates catalysis with soft materials: catalytic surfactants and polymers; complex macromolecular architectures for bio-inspired catalysis; and ligand-mediated nanocatalysis

Robert Savinell

Develops high-performance electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies through fundamental and applied studies of interfacial and transport processes

David Schiraldi

Develops bio-based, flame-retarded plastics, polymer aerogels and packaging materials; and studies properties of polyesters

Alp Sehirlioglu

Develops new materials through exploitation of interfaces to control functionality and exploration of multi-functionality for energy-related applications

Tina Vrabec

Develops novel waveforms and electrodes for downregulation of the nervous system for clinical applications including peripheral, autonomic and pain

Robert Warburton

Develops computational models of interfacial chemical reactions relevant to applications in catalysis and energy storage

Gerhard Welsch

Develops new processing methods and designs for energy storage and optimized materials

Matthew Willard

Investigates phase transformations and materials processing, especially their impact on structure and properties of materials

Develops advanced polymers for packaging, biomaterial applications and more.

Multiscale multiphysics processes in geosystems and infrastructure, interdisciplinary innovations in intelligent infrastructure technologies towards resilience and sustainability.

Huichun (Judy) Zhang

Examines fate and transformation of environmental contaminants in natural and engineered environments and develops advanced water/wastewater treatment technologies

Develops high-energy and high-performance polymers based on close relationships among structure, property and processing

Disseminating Research and Analysis of Public Policy Issues

Cwru center for policy studies.

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CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY ANNUAL CONSTITUTION DAY PROGRAM MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18, 2023 4:00 – 5:30 p.m. Room 108 Mandel Center Building 11402 Bellflower Road Cleveland, OH 44106

After allen v. milligan : the end of racial gerrymandering.

On November 4, 2021, Alabama Governor Kay Ivey signed into law a new congressional map that redrew boundaries for the state’s seven districts. The map included only one majority-Black district, despite the fact that African Americans compose over 27% of the state’s population. Civil rights advocates quickly contested the redrawn congressional map claiming that it violated Section II of the 1965 Voting Rights Act by diluting the voting power of Alabama’s Black population. In January 2022, a panel of three federal judges determined that Alabama’s map violated Section II of the Voting Rights Act. The state of Alabama then accelerated Allen v. Milligan (2023) to the Supreme Court to answer an important question: did Alabama’s 2021 redistricting plan dilute Black voting power and violate the Voting Rights Act?

In a decision that surprised many, the Supreme Court, in a 5-4 ruling, struck down Alabama’s congressional map on the grounds that it violated Section II of the Voting Rights Act and diminished Black voting power. The decision had an immediate impact, with Alabama being required to draw a new map reflecting the state’s demographic makeup. The larger implications of this decision remain to be seen, but with similar cases on dockets across the country, the influence of Allen v. Milligan may be revealed soon.

Atiba Ellis, J.D. , is the Laura B. Chisolm Distinguished Research Scholar and Professor of Law at Case Western Reserve University School of Law. A nationally noted voting rights scholar, his primary research focuses on how racial and class-based oppression interact continues to abridge and deny the right to vote to communities on the margins of American democracy. His work has analyzed voter identification laws for their socioeconomic effects, situated felon disenfranchisement laws as enforcing a political underclass, analyzed the theoretical scope of the Citizens United decision and described the ideological drivers of vote suppression. His work is interdisciplinary in nature, spanning doctrinal legal analysis, critical political theory, race and the law, legal history, and innovative legal pedagogy.

Professor Ellis’s current research focuses on how ideologically driven conceptions of “wrongful voters” diminish the right to vote. He has also written on critical legal theory and legal history. Moreover, he is currently working with his co-authors to publish a new edition of the late Derrick Bell’s foundational textbook, Race Racism and American Law .

Program planned by the 2023 CWRU Society for Constitutional Policy: Christopher Batarseh, Hannah Bolender (secretary), Catherine Feng (risk manager), Sakthurien Kumar (vice president), Jonah Ledet, Kelly Mallon (president), Cameron Page (treasurer)

Faculty Advisors: William Doll, Andrew Lucker, Laura Tartakoff, and Joe White

Sponsored by the Office of the President, Office of Government and Community Relations, Department of Political Science, Center for Policy Studies, and School of Law

A reception will follow in the Mandel Center Building Inner Lobby.

PAST PROGRAMMING

• Russia’s Military
• Post – Dobbs : The State and Federal Landscape
• Censored Section 230 and the Fight for Free Speech Online
• Presidential Power and Immigration
• Building the Post-1949 State in China and Taiwan
• The U.S. Health Policy Community: A View from Europe
• Battle for the Ballot Box
• War, Fragmentation, and Reconstruction in Yemen
• How French Are France's Problems?
• E-Cigarettes and the Precautionary Principle: The Limits of Trying to "first, do no harm" in a Dangerous World
• Encryption: Privacy v. Public Safety

» Additional Programming Highlights

POLICY RELATED CENTERS

• The Center for Genetic Research Ethics and Law
• Center on Urban Poverty and Community Development
• University Center on Aging and Health
• The Law and Medicine Center

» View more policy related centers

Case Western Reserve University-led research team discovers new method to test for oral cancer

Oral cancers and precancerous mouth lesions are considered especially difficult to diagnose early and accurately.

For one, biopsies are expensive, invasive, stressful for the patient and can lead to complications. They’re also not feasible if repeated screenings of the same lesion are required.

But a team of researchers, led by a clinician scientist at Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine , has discovered a noninvasive, low-cost test to detect oral cancer, monitor precancerous lesions and determine when a biopsy is warranted.

Their findings, published online March 4 in the journal Cell Reports Medicine are based on a scoring system linked to the levels of two proteins in cells brushed from suspicious oral lesions of patients at dental clinics or the ear, nose and throat department at University Hospitals (UH).

One of the proteins (human beta defensin 3 or hBD-3) is expressed at high levels in early-stage oral cancer, while the second (hBD-2) is low or unchanged.

The ratio of hBD-3 to hBD-2 in the lesion site—over the ratio of the two proteins on the opposite, normal site—generates a score, called the beta defensin index (BDI).

A score above a predetermined threshold implies cancer; anything below does not. Determining the levels of the proteins and quantifying the BDI is done routinely in a lab.

The BDI was independently validated using identical protocols at CWRU/UH, University of Cincinnati Medical Center and West Virginia University School of Dentistry.

“When we first discovered hBD-3, we saw it acted as a ‘good guy,’ involved in wound-healing and killing microbes,” said Aaron Weinberg , chair of the Department of Biological Sciences at the Case Western Reserve School of Dental Medicine and the study’s lead researcher. “When we found it was regulated the same way certain cells grow uncontrollably, we started studying hBD-3 in the context of oral cancer.

“Imagine our surprise when this Dr. Jekyll turned out to be Mr. Hyde,” he said. “We found it was not only promoting tumor growth but was overexpressed in the early stages of the disease, while another member, hBD-2, wasn’t changing. This difference in levels of expression of the two proteins compared to the opposite side in the same patient led us to examine the BDI’s ability to distinguish cancer from benign lesions.”

Weinberg credits School of Dental Medicine instructor Santosh Ghosh for navigating the BDI scoring process.

Head and neck cancer (HNC), of which oral cancer is about 90%, is the seventh-most prevalent malignancy in the world, and developing countries are witnessing a rise in its incidence. HNC makes up about 5% of all cancers worldwide and 3% of all malignancies in the United States, according to the National Institutes of Health. There are about 640,000 cases of HNC per year, resulting in about 350,000 deaths worldwide, mainly in socioeconomically disadvantaged populations and underserved communities.

The study’s lab-based approach, which is now patented, can reduce biopsies in primary care clinics by 95% because it can tell clinicians who actually needs a biopsy, said Weinberg, also secondarily appointed in the Departments of Pathology and Otolaryngology at Case Western Reserve School of Medicine. The test can also be used in developing countries where oral cancer is rampant and pathology services are questionable or lacking, he said.

The positive data from the lab-based approach has inspired the development of a point-of-care (POC) device in collaboration with Umut Gurkan, the Wilbert J. Austin Professor of Engineering at the Case School of Engineering. The POC diagnostic approach measures the protein ratio and could be used directly in a clinic, providing results within half-hour.

Working through Case Western Reserve’s Technology Transfer Office , a patent for the device is pending, setting up possible manufacturing and clinical validation as a next step.

Discovery, clinical validation studies and POC technology development were supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Cancer Institute, Case Coulter Translational Research Partnership and Ohio Third Frontier Technology Validation and Start-Up Fund.

For more information, contact Bill Lubinger at [email protected] .

This article was originally published March 4, 2024.

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College of Arts and Sciences

Ptsd research and treatment program.

We hope that this page gives you a sense of the kind of work that we are doing in our lab here, the PTSD Treatment and Research Program , and the opportunities for students that are available. Our work is focused on intervention studies, primarily in the area of PTSD. We are a busy, productive group and we hope our lab page will give you a good glimpse into the work that we do.

Our Mission Statement

The PTSD Treatment and Research Program is a team of insatiably curious individuals dedicated to carrying out strong, interdisciplinary science and delivering compassionate, evidence-based care. We aim to close the gap between research and practice through working to better understand the biological and psychological principles underlying trauma-related risk and resilience, treatment optimization, and the dissemination and implementation of evidence-based treatments to ultimately improve access to quality care.

What is PTSD?

In the U.S., it is estimated that at least 50-60% of the population will experience a potentially traumatic event, such as a physical or sexual assault or motor vehicle accident, during their lifetime. Fortunately, most people do not develop long lasting psychological difficulties after a traumatic event. Among those who do however, the most common constellation of such difficulties is called posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The symptoms of PTSD fall into three clusters: reexperiencing (e.g., intrusive and distressing thoughts about the event); avoidance (e.g., pushing away thoughts or memories of the trauma, or staying away from situations, people, and places that are reminders of the trauma); and hyperarousal (e.g., sleep problems, difficulty concentrating, feeling on guard or jumpy). In order to meet diagnostic criteria for PTSD, these difficulties must persist for at least one month after the trauma and cause significant impairment in functioning. The diagnostic criteria for PTSD are the same for adults and children.

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2024-25 General Bulletin

Experiential Learning

Case Western Reserve University offers undergraduates a variety of experiences inside and outside the classroom that are built on a process of guided inquiry, preparation, action and reflection. Many research, internship, and employment opportunities are aligned with academic programs. Linguistic and cultural immersion characterize the study abroad experience.  In many courses, Case Western Reserve students engage in experiential learning beyond the on-campus classrooms and laboratories. Experiences that form the basis for reflection and synthesis under the guidance of faculty include working with hospitalized children, designing engineering solutions for a problem presented by a municipality, interning at a local media outlet, tutoring in Cleveland’s Hispanic community, gaining experience in public health clinics, studying history with “the city as classroom,” or collecting aquatic specimens from the ponds at the university’s 389-acre farm. Courses that incorporate community service or internships into the curriculum forge links between Case Western Reserve undergraduates and schools, neighborhoods, businesses, and governmental and health care institutions in Cleveland and elsewhere.

International Experience

Case Western Reserve University encourages students to study, research, intern, and participate in service learning experiences abroad. Students benefit personally, academically, and professionally from educational experiences abroad.

The Office of Education Abroad partners with overseas institutions and facilitates participation by CWRU students in a wide selection of courses abroad. Students of all majors can stay on track to graduate while including study abroad in their degree timeline. In consultation with their academic advisors and study abroad advisors, students can identify which study abroad programs meet their academic and personal goals. They can choose from traditional semester or academic year study abroad programs or shorter programs with CWRU faculty and students.  Many study abroad programs cost about the same as studying in Cleveland.  Additionally, financial aid can be applied to study abroad, and many students find that they are eligible for study abroad scholarships.

Semester and Academic Year Programs

In order to participate in semester and academic year programs of study or practical experience that immerse them in the culture and language of another country, students must first

• Have completed at least 24 credit hours of coursework at CWRU,
• Have declared a major,
• Be in good academic and disciplinary standing with no pending judicial actions, and
• Be otherwise eligible to register on campus at CWRU for the proposed semester(s) (no financial holds, e.g.).

Full-time study : Students participating in semester or academic year study abroad must enroll in the equivalent of at least 12 credit hours each semester in order to maintain full-time student status for the semester abroad.

Transferring credit back to CWRU : Upon presentation of an official transcript from the study abroad program, transfer credit will be awarded for courses completed with a grade of C or better and determined to be equivalent or comparable to those offered by the appropriate academic department at CWRU.

Credit limits : After matriculation at Case Western Reserve University, students are permitted to earn a maximum of 38 credit hours of off-campus study credit towards the total required for their degree provided the credits are earned from an accredited institution or through an approved study abroad program. Of this, only 15 credit hours may be taken as part of a domestic program (including cross-registration) or as summer study in a student's home country.   Any off-campus study beyond 15 credit hours may only be taken through approved study abroad programs.  Please note that any credit earned beyond these limits will raise the total number of credit-hours required for the degree by the corresponding number.

Foreign language study : Case Western Reserve does not require students to complete any foreign language prerequisites before studying abroad, though students wishing to study in a country where the native language is not English are advised to develop their language skills to the extent possible. Students studying for at least a semester in a single location where English is not an official language must take a course that advances their skills in a language of the host country during each semester of study abroad, provided such courses are available. This may be a course of language instruction or a course taught in a language of the host country. Students participating in study abroad experiences that are comparative in nature and visit several sites within the same semester are not required to include language study in their academic programs.

Tuition: Students participating in semester or academic year study abroad pay the normal CWRU tuition to Case Western Reserve University and maintain their student status at CWRU during the period of study abroad. Case Western Reserve University will, in turn, pay the tuition costs for the student's program abroad. Students are responsible for paying all non-tuition costs associated with study abroad to the study abroad program directly (i.e. housing, student fees, excursions, travel costs, etc.). Students retain all of their financial aid while studying abroad. 

Additional study abroad information is available from the Office of Education Abroad .

Short-Term Programs

Case Western Reserve University offers a robust portfolio of short-term study abroad options that allow students to travel as a group with a member of the Case Western Reserve University faculty. These programs are often one to three weeks in duration and are offered over spring break, winter break, and during the summer. Program offerings vary each year. All Case Western Reserve University students in good academic and disciplinary standing are eligible to participate in short-term study abroad programs.  

Summer Programs

All Case Western Reserve University undergraduates in good academic and disciplinary standing are permitted to study abroad during the summer. With approval, up to 15 credit hours of summer coursework can be transferred to Case Western Reserve University. During the summer, study abroad students pay tuition and fees directly to the study abroad program.  A wide variety of summer programs is available through the Office of Education Abroad .  

Research, Service Learning, and Internship Opportunities Abroad

Case Western Reserve University offers international research, service learning, and internship opportunities as part of a semester abroad on many of our approved programs.  Study abroad advisors can help students identify and apply to these programs. With the help of the Office of Education Abroad and Case Western Reserve University faculty, students can also conduct independent research projects abroad.

Research Experience

Undergraduate research.

Case Western Reserve University is a research-intensive community with a tradition of involving undergraduates in research and creative endeavors. Regardless of a student's major or academic interests, there are numerous opportunities to engage in research either on campus with Case Western Reserve faculty or elsewhere during both the academic year and the summer. The Undergraduate Research Office provides assistance to students throughout the undergraduate educational experience, including:

• helping students identify research and creative project opportunities on campus or around the university during the academic year and around the world during the summer,
• providing funding for on-campus summer research,
• providing funding for travel for students presenting their work at regional and national conferences,
• providing educational research and informational seminars,
• sponsoring the Intersections Symposium and Poster Session for students to present their work to our academic community, and
• advising Discussions: The Undergraduate Research Journal of CWRU .

In many cases, students pursuing research under the guidance of a faculty member may earn degree credit by registering for “Undergraduate Research” or "Independent Study" in the appropriate department. These are advanced-level courses and require departmental approval. However, students may not earn both degree credit and pay for the same work.  Students may discuss academic credit for research with their major advisor.

Work Experience 

The center for civic engagement and learning.

The Center for Civic Engagement and Learning (CCEL) works to create an engaged campus by providing and supporting opportunities for community service and collective action while promoting civic awareness and leadership.  CCEL offers a variety of programs, services, and resources to accommodate different student interests and schedules.  These include one-day Saturdays of Service, flexible weekly opportunities through CCEL Serves, week-long and weekend Alternative Break experiences, and the year-long Civic Engagement Scholars program.  CCEL coordinates Cleveland excursions to explore and connect with our community and facilitates educational training about community issues, responsible engagement, voter education/registration, and active citizenship.  CCEL also provides community service advising and assists faculty and students in designing and implementing service learning courses and community-based capstone projects.

Cooperative Education

Cooperative Education (Co-op) is an academic program that enables students in majors offered by the Case School of Engineering to alternate classroom studies with career-based experiences in industry. It is a learning experience designed to integrate classroom theory with practical experience and professional development. Co-op is a paid full-time work experience designed to enhance the student’s education. Case Western Reserve co-op assignments are typically for two seven-month periods, each period consisting of a summer and a contiguous spring or fall semester. While participating in co-op, students maintain their full-time student status. This program is available to students pursuing majors in all fields of engineering, computer science (BA and BS), and data science.

Professional Practicum

Practicum is a non-credit experiential education program coordinated through the Career Center that provides students with opportunities to develop and enhance skills, insights, and knowledge related to career development. The desired learning outcome of the practicum experience is intellectual, professional, and personal growth in an area related to a student's academic and career goals.  Undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences, the Case School of Engineering, the Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, or the Weatherhead School of Management who are pursuing career-related work experience and students pursuing entrepreneurial ventures may participate.  (Most Case School of Engineering students participate in experiential education through the Co-op program, but may participate in practicum, depending on the duration of the assignment.)  International students are eligible for the practicum program through Curricular Practical Training (CPT).

Practicum students enroll in course sections for the semester in which they are on assignment either full-time (40 hours/week) or part-time (20 hours/week). The duration of the program can range from a minimum of 6 weeks to a maximum of 14 weeks. Full-time practicum students do not enroll in other coursework, but maintain full-time student status during the practicum period; part-time participants are expected to enroll in other credit-bearing coursework. Although no credit is awarded, students who successfully complete the practicum assignment receive transcript notation. Successful completion is determined by the Practicum Coordinator with input from the faculty advisor and employer once the required deliverables are submitted by the student.

Students interested in participating in a practicum should contact the Career Center , the semester prior to the intended practicum period.

Entrepreneurship

The Veale Institute for Entrepreneurship at Case Western Reserve University catalyzes entrepreneurial ideas through education and training, accelerates venture creation, and connects people in a transformative way. The Veale Institute’s mission is to ensure that all CWRU students, no matter their major, have the access and resources they need to foster their entrepreneurial mindset. Educational programming such as the CWRU Alumni Entrepreneurship Speaker Series and Skills Lab workshops are available for students looking to explore their interests.

CWRU LaunchNET is the entrepreneurship gateway on campus to help students in all majors test, validate, and turn their ideas into products and services. LaunchNET connects students to a network of mentors and peers who share an interest in entrepreneurship and innovation.

Washington Study Program

The Washington Study Program provides students with the opportunity to complete a full-time, research-intensive internship in Washington, D.C.  By participating in a semester-length program during the fall or spring ( WASH 2A ), students earn 9 credit hours; for a summer internship ( WASH 2D ), they earn 3 credit hours.  In addition, students earn 3 credit hours for participating in a seminar and attending a weekly lecture/discussion group ( WASH 2B ) and 3 credit hours by developing a portfolio based on their internship experiences ( WASH 2C ).  The credits earned can be counted as general electives or applied to a student’s major or minor with the prior consent of the individual department(s).

To be eligible for the program, a student is expected to be a junior or senior and have a GPA of at least 3.000.  The program director, the student’s major advisor, and the appropriate dean in the Undergraduate Advising Support Office must approve each application.  Students must ensure that their participation will not prevent them from meeting on-campus residency or other university requirements.

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College of Arts and Sciences

Environmental studies program.

Environmental Studies is a multidisciplinary program that introduces students to the societal determinants and implications of environmental problems. The program emphasizes the moral, cultural, and political dimensions of environmental problems and solutions that arise from scientific understanding of the environment, bringing to bear the issues and methods of the humanities and social sciences as well as those of the sciences and the professions. The program is designed to serve the needs of students seeking a liberal education or a broad intellectual base for more technical training in environmental sciences. Students can pursue a major or a minor in environmental studies.

112 AW Smith Building Phone 216-368-1899 Peter Whiting, Program Director [email protected]

Inequalities and Social Capital as Factors of Subjective Well-Being: Case Study from Western Province, Zambia

• Research Paper
• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024
• Volume 25 , article number  93 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Martin Schlossarek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4212-4573 1 ,
• Jaromír Harmáček   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3711-0663 1 ,
• Aneta Seidlová   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8118-0813 2 , 3 &
• Lenka Suchá   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8183-0473 2  

Understanding well-being’s complexities, including its subjective and context-dependent nature, is crucial for informing policy decisions and development interventions aimed at enhancing quality of life and reducing poverty. Unfortunately, subjective well-being (SWB) research, particularly in the context of Global South, has received relatively less attention, despite its fundamental importance in the field of human development. This research aims to contribute to the discussion on SWB by examining its association with diverse forms of inequalities and deprivations. Specifically, we investigate the impact of these deprivations, both at the societal and intra-household levels, on SWB among the rural population of the Western Province in Zambia. The study underscores low levels of SWB in the surveyed area. It reveals the impact of intra-household inequalities, demonstrating that the presence of a more educated individual in the household positively affects well-being. On the other hand, having responsibilities related to decision-making power within households diminishes SWB, probably due to related stress and anxiety. As expected, limited access to resources in the household also negatively affects SWB. Our main finding in the realm of societal inequalities revolves around the assertion that fostering social capital through active participation in formal or informal groups significantly enhances SWB. Empowering individuals through education and knowledge sharing, and promoting inclusivity and diversity in social interactions are key strategies that policymakers can adopt to enhance SWB in the Muoyo-Mukukutu area and similar regions.

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1 Introduction

“ Understanding and improving well-being requires a sound evidence base that can inform policymakers and citizens alike where, when, and for whom life is getting better ” (OECD, 2013 :3). This quote from the introduction to OECD’s “Guidelines for measuring subjective well-being” illustrates the increasing importance of well-being among policymakers. There is a substantive body of literature identifying common factors of well-being. A growing strand of well-being research also recognizes subjective and contextual dimensions (Conceição & Bandura, 2008 ; Diener et al., 2018 ) by acknowledging that meaning and perceptions of the good life can vary across individuals and societies, and in a particular socio-cultural context.

The basic distinction relating to our study is whether well-being is best measured through objective measures (i.e. directly observed and commonly accepted indicators of welfare) or through subjective perceptions of individuals (Conceição & Bandura, 2008 ). In this paper, we focus on subjective well-being (SWB), i.e. how individuals feel about their own well-being. While SWB has been studied extensively in the Global North, the factors influencing SWB in the Global South (and specifically in Sub-Saharan Africa) have received a comparatively lower share of attention (Addai et al., 2014 ; Diener et al., 2018 ). This is unfortunate, given the recognized importance of SWB in human development (Ketu, 2023 ; Kulkarni et al., 2023 ), and its subsequent relevance for any policy and development intervention striving to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life (Beauchamp et al., 2018 ; Gough et al., 2007 ).

We respond to this gap by expanding recent research on factors influential to SWB on the micro-level in different contexts of the Global South (e.g., Huang et al., 2024 ; Pontarollo et al., 2020 ; Shams, 2014 ) through a case study of Western province, Zambia. We do so by (1) complex conceptualisation of SWB factors, (2) highlighting the links between SWB and different forms of inequality and deprivation at the household and community levels, and by (3) contributing to the existing empirical evidence on SWB specifically for Zambia.

To our knowledge, SWB in Zambia has been addressed in two studies so far (Holder et al., 2016 ; Phiri & Abebe, 2016 ). Holder et al. ( 2016 ) assessed how religiousness and spirituality influence SWB among children and adolescents. They found spirituality to be a strong predictor of higher life satisfaction among children. Phiri and Abebe ( 2016 ) conducted a qualitative case study of poverty in the Eastern Province of Zambia, with SWB forming only a part of the addressed dimension. Their findings highlight important contextual and relational factors influencing well-being. However, both studies have addressed only some aspects of well-being in children and adolescents.

Our paper examines the factors of SWB among inhabitants ( N  = 411) from rural areas of Zambia's Western Province (Mongu district). We are particularly interested in linking SWB with different forms of inequality and related deprivation. Inequality has become a prominent concern in the fields of economics and development, evident from the growing body of academic studies and literature addressing this issue (see, e.g., Atkinson, 2015 ; Milanovic, 2016 ; Scheidel, 2017 ; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2018 ; Wienk et al., 2022 ). The increased significance of inequality has also been recognisedby the UN’s Target 10.1 of the Sustainable Development Goals, Footnote 1 making within-country inequality goals part of the global development policy agenda for the first time.

We adopt a broader approach to inequality by focusing on its multiple dimensions (i.e., not only income or assets inequality). Moreover, we also work with intra-household inequalities which are often neglected in empirical studies (Chiappori & Meghir, 2015 ) due to the lack of data at the individual level. Therefore, we aim to address the main research question of whether and how intra-household inequalities (deprivations) and inequalities in social capital (varying social networks) relate to SWB.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, we conceptualize potential determinants of SWB, drawing upon insights from the existing literature. Following this, we describe the data, variables and methods used to explain SWB in our analysis. In the results section, we summarize the main findings, followed by a discussion of their implications, including potential policy recommendations. Finally, the concluding section offers a summary of our findings and suggests avenues for future research.

2 Theoretical Framework

2.1 conceptualization of subjective well-being.

There are various concepts of well-being. The main difference lies in the concepts building on subjective versus objective approaches. Subjective indicators of well-being are based on a person's own experiences and evaluations. Measures of subjective well-being include a person's assessment of their life, feelings or emotional states, and sense of meaning and purpose in life (see OECD, 2013 ; Clark et al., 2018 ). The objective indicators for well-being attempt to reflect measurable characteristics of the phenomenon that are independent of people's evaluations. However, the construction of all indicators, including those measuring objective well-being, is influenced by the subjectivity of their creators, who make various normative decisions (such as which dimensions to include, and what weights to assign).

In fact, the objective and subjective approaches to measuring well-being are interrelated. The most notable indicator of objective well-being, the Human Development Index, builds on the capability approach. From its perspective, well-being is about capabilities to achieve things and way of life people have a reason to value (Sen, 1993 ). To put it differently, this conceptualization of objective well-being includes the various capabilities and their functions that result, among other things, in subjective well-being (Clark, 2005 ;). Conversely, when respondents are asked about subjective well-being (for example, life satisfaction), they are likely to consider factors such as their living standard or health, i.e., traditional dimensions of objective well-being. This is reflected by White ( 2010 :162), who argues that “well-being emerges in the interplay of ‘objective’—that is, externally observable and independently verifiable aspects of people’s circumstances, and their ‘subjective’ perceptions and assessments of these”.

In this paper, we acknowledge the interconnectedness of subjective and objective-well being. Subjective evaluation usually includes one or more of the following three dimensions: (a) overall reflection on one’s life and related achievements (life satisfaction); (b) affect—feelings and emotions (happiness, sadness, anger); c) eudaimonia—evaluation of meaning and purpose in life. This study’s dependent variable of SWB is measured through overall life satisfaction. Although eliciting life satisfaction may be impacted by reliability issues, it is an established approach to assessing well-being and predicting future life choices (Kahneman & Krueger, 2006 ). To account for the close relationship between subjective and objective well-being, we include traditional dimensions of objective well-being as independent variables.

2.2 Factors Influencing SWB

The existing body of research on SWB suggests that it is influenced by a combination of individual internal and external determinants. Diener et al., ( 2018 :255) distinguish between three main groups of theories aiming to explain different levels of SWB: (1) biological and genetic traits theories, (2) cognitive explanations, and (3) satisfaction with achieving goals and needs. Overall, a large part of SWB or life satisfaction can be explained by the former two groups of determinants. Nonetheless, there are arguably important context-dependent root factors such as living standards, sense of freedom, and different forms of inequality, that explain variance in SWB levels across and within societies, mainly by affecting the satisfaction with achieving goals and needs (Conceição & Bandura, 2008 ; Cordero et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the paper focuses on exploration of the third determinant and its associated root factors.

Some of the most prominent root factors influencing SWB include basic dimensions of objective well-being such as financial and material conditions, education level, and health (Elgar et al., 2011 ; Howell & Howell, 2008 ; Ngamaba et al., 2020 ; Voukelatou et al., 2021 ). The relationship between income and SWB has been addressed by Mentzakis and Moro ( 2009 ), who found that increasing absolute income levels improves SWB, though only up to a certain threshold and less than relative income levels (more recently e.g. Reyes-García et al., 2016 ). Higher levels of education tend to enhance SWB indirectly through higher income and improved health. However, education also often raises aspirations that, when unmet, can negatively impact SWB (Kristoffersen, 2018 ). While the precise nature of the relationship between living standards, education, and health (and other socioeconomic factors such as age and sex) remains a subject of ongoing debate, these variables consistently emerge as some of the most influential predictors of SWB (e.g. Huang et al., 2024 ; Kulkarni et al., 2023 ; Nikolaev, 2018 ).

Satisfaction with achieving goals and needs is closely related to the matter of achieving aspirations (Ibrahim, 2011 ) either in one area of life (such as ideal education or job), or in life generally. The latter can be viewed as a complex of multiple aspirations relating to an imagined life (Copestake & Camfield, 2010 ). In this sense, well-being (or, alternatively, ill-being) could be a result of an aspiration gap, i.e., the difference between the current situation and unfulfiiled desires (Ray 2006 ), or aspiration failure, i.e., the lack of capability to achieve aspirations and resulting outcomes (Bernard et al., 2011 ). The aspiration gap can lead to feelings of diminished control or freedom in life. Conversely, it can be argued that a lack of control or freedom can contribute to an inability to fulfill personal desires, thereby perpetuating the aspiration gap.

Inequalities influence satisfaction with achieving goals and needs through two pathways. First, they influence individuals' aspirations. Second, inequalities inherently limit opportunities for those positioned unfavorably in the distribution, such as individuals with poor health, lack of education, or financial resources, thus fostering a sense of deprivation. Generally, studies on subjective well-being confirm the importance of relative comparisons (and therefore distribution) as there is a consensus that on the national level, wealthier people manifest higher levels of happiness that those on the lower part of the income spectrum At the same time, economists still argue up to what extent increasing a country's average income makes people happier (see, e.g., Stevenson & Wolfers, 2012 ; Clark et al., 2018 ). Goff et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the relationship between subjective well-being inequality and the average reported level of well-being across over 160 countries, utilizing data from three international surveys, and consistently observed a negative correlation.

While different societies may be similar in terms of specific dimensions of inequality, such as health and income, the overall level of inequality can be amplified by the extent to which these particular dimensions of inequality overlap within a society (Syrovátka & Schlossarek, 2019 ). Moreover, this notion of overlapping inequality can be applied across various levels of measurement. Arguably, experiencing disadvantage across multiple levels—be it at the national, community, or household level—is more detrimental than facing it in just one or two of those contexts. Due to lack of data, inequality at the household level tends to be neglected (Chiappori & Meghir, 2015 ; Klasen & Lahoti, 2021 ). This is unfortunate, as, for example, Banda et al. (2017) have shown that gender inequality within Zambian households has negative implications for women’s well-being.

This brings us to the importance of social dimensions of SWB. SWB is inherently social and relational: aspirations and the capability to achieve a good life are forged within socio-cultural norms and relations (Appadurai 2004; Ray, 2006; Leung et al., 2011 ). Social capital is an important determinant of poverty, SWB, and happiness Sarracino, 2010 ; Rojas, 2018 , Kim et al., 2021 ). Especially in contexts where inequality is high and the provision of public services and assets is limited, social networks and kinship ties constitute a valuable resource (Elgar et al., 2011 ; Helliwell et al., 2020 ). Huang and Fang ( 2021 ) suggest (income) inequality may be mitigated by “neighborhood social capital”. In the context of Zambia, studies have shown the importance of social capital in livelihood strategies and decision-making (Njuki et al., 2008 ; van Bastelaer & Leathers, 2006 ).

In the following section, we describe data collection, variables included in this study, our main hypotheses and data analysis.

3 Data and Methods

3.1 data collection.

The survey was conducted in the area of Muoyo town and Mukukutu village south of the city of Mongu (Fig.  1 ). Muoyo was selected to represent a “typical” regional township with comparably good infrastructure, located close to the strategic M10 road, which is surrounded by a cluster of a larger number of settlements that are socio-economically and demographically similar to each other. Mukukutu represents a rural settlement with a high representation of small farmers, poor transport accessibility, and poor infrastructure, located on the edge of a floodplain that is extensively used for the cultivation of irrigation-intensive crops such as rice.

Location of the survey area

Within the Muoyo-Mukukutu region, defined by the above-mentioned municipalities, stratified sampling was carried out by dividing each of the two municipalities into four geographically defined areas. Next, quotas were set for the representation of age categories, sex, and household heads (versus ordinary household members) for data collection purposes so that the structure of the resulting sample would roughly match available data or estimates of the actual socio-demographic structure of the region. The data enumerators were also given guidelines to construct a sample characterized by qualities similar to those derived from a stratified random sampling procedure. Following data collection, it was observed that all quotas were met except heads of households quota. The expected share of household heads for the Muoyo-Mukukutu area was lower than what we acquired. The discrepancy was probably caused by combination of sampling bias and multiple claims to headship (for more details about the discrepancy and related considerations, consult Schlossarek et al., 2024a , 2024b ). Furthermore, certain groups within the population may have been underrepresented or excluded from the study. For example, individuals who were not available during the data collection period or who refused to participate could introduce another sampling bias.

The questionnaire pilot was followed by intensive training of the five data enumerators and then by the actual collection of the data, which took place from 18 to 28 July 2022.

The questionnaire covered a range of topics; notably SWB, human development indicators, various dimensions of social capital, questions covering intra-household inequalities, and the demographic characteristics of the respondents’ households (however, we highlight that the unit of the subsequent analysis was the individual, not the household). The data collection resulted in a sample size of 411 respondents, 229 from Muoyo and 182 from Mukukutu. Raw data are available at Schlossarek et al., ( 2024a , 2024b ).

3.2 Variables Used in the Analysis

The aim of the survey was to identify the factors that influence the SWB of the respondents. This was measured using a question in which respondents rated their satisfaction with life on a scale of 1 (worst possible life) to 10 (best possible life). Specifically, we used the question measuring evaluation of present life in the Gallup World Poll (Helliwell et al., 2023 ). A list and description of all variables included in the regression model are given in Table  1 .

Explanatory variables include two variables measuring demographic characteristics. These are sex and age . Other three variables ( living_standard , health , education ) summarise the three basic dimensions of human development (HD) as reported, for example, in the Human Development Index (UNDP, 2022 ). To assess the relationship between well-being and aspiration gap, we include a variable addressing respondents' perceived freedom (freedom) to choose what to do with their lives.

Another set of three variables operationalizes various deprivations of the respondent within their households in the areas of education ( depriv_educ ), access to resources ( depriv_living ), and decision-making ( depriv_power ). Next, we list variables approximating the respondent's social capital. Specifically, they focus on the following dimensions: informal relations ( no_friends ), formal relations ( group_member ), the existence of contacts that can arrange a valued service for the respondent ( friend_car ), and contacts to the government representatives ( villhead_knows , gov_knows ).

3.3 Research Hypotheses

While the overarching goal of the paper is to identify factors influencing the SWB of the respondents, our hypotheses are focused on the examination of intra-household inequalities and the role of social capital in communities as factors associated with the respondents’ SWB. The first set of hypotheses relates to intra-household deprivations. We address not only the respondent's education but also the household's highest-achieved education. When the respondent's educational attainment is comparatively lower, it can have a dual effect: a positive spill-over effect of knowledge and good leadership, thereby augmenting the respondent's well-being, or conversely, an aspiration gap, leading to a detriment in the respondent's well-being.

Similarly, a parallel dichotomy can be discerned in the case of power inequalities within a household. A decision-making role within the household can undoubtedly fulfil an individual's aspirations. On the other hand, it can also precipitate feelings of pressure and stress. Lastly, we hypothesise that limited access to household resources relative to other household members inevitably leads to a diminishment in the well-being of the individual subjected to this disparity. This hypothesis underscores the adverse consequences of intra-household resource imbalances and highlights the significance of material resource allocation in shaping individual welfare.

The second set of hypotheses consists of four assumptions which focus on the interplay between social capital and SWB. Firstly, we assume that membership in organized groups improves social capital and fosters societal inclusivity, consequently leading to an increased level of SWB. Secondly, we hypothesize that an absence of friendships exhibits a negative relationship with SWB. Thirdly, when hypothesizing about knowing people who can facilitate valued services for the respondent, a notable dichotomy emerges. These networks can serve as a substitute for limited resources, potentially mitigating the adverse repercussions of resource constraints and thereby increasing the respondent's well-being. On the other hand, direct interaction with individuals who occupy clearly superior socio-economic positions relative to the respondent may intensify the sense of deprivation stemming from socio-economic disparities. This can diminish the respondent´s SWB. Lastly, we hypothesize that close relationships with statutory and customary government representatives exhibit positive correlations with SWB. This association can be channelled through heightened perceptions of security, increased social prestige leading to an enhanced societal standing, and greater inclusion and influence within the community. Figure  2 shows the analytical approach used to test our hypotheses. Footnote 2

Visualisation of the analytical approach. Note : variables used for the concepts operationalization are in the parentheses. Highlighted in bold are variables used in the main regression models (see Table  3 below). Variables in italics are used in the sensitivity analysis presented in the Appendix

3.4 Methods of Analysis

We begin our quantitative analysis by conducting a thorough examination of descriptive statistics. Next, we explore bilateral relationships between our explanatory variables and SWB. Depending on the characteristics of the explanatory variables, we analyze the relationship either by comparing means of subjective-wellbeing (categorical variables with two categories), Goodman and Kruskal’s gamma (ordinary variables with more than two categories), and Pearson correlation coefficient (quantitative variables). For comparisons of means, we report p -values of two-tailed Welch’s t-tests (unequal variances t-tests); for Goodman and Kruskal’s gammas and Pearson correlation coefficients, we report p-values indicating whether they are significantly different from zero.

The key part of the research is based on regression analysis which is used to assess how our explanatory variables are associated with SWB while controlling for possible confounders. Our dependent variable, SWB (or life satisfaction), is measured on a discrete scale going from 1 (worst possible life) to 10 (best possible life). With regard to the nature of our dependent variable, we use the Poisson regression technique which is often used to model discrete count variables.

We perform four regression models. In the first model, we use basic demographic and human development variables, among which we also include freedom of choice. In the second model, we add variables measuring intra-households inequalities (deprivations). Then, we replace deprivations variables by social capital variables in the third model. The fourth model is the final one and it includes all explanatory variables of our interest, i.e. variables capturing basic demographics, human development development (including freedom of choice), intra-household inequalities (deprivations), and social capital. All calculations are performed using statistical software Stata (StataCorp, 2017).

We first look at the summary statistics of our dependent variable. The respondents’ SWB is generally low, with the average score rising just above 3 (3.05) on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 10 (highest), with only one of the 411 respondents choosing the highest score. In contrast, 47 respondents chose the lowest score. As seen in Fig.  3 , the answers of most respondents range from 1 to 5.

Subjective well-being of respondents

Descriptive statistics of all variables are presented in Table  2 . In the last column of the table, we present bilateral associations of our explanatory variables with SWB. It can also be seen from Table  2 that some variables have more missing data points, which lowers the number of observations entering the bilateral analyses (Table  2 ), as well as the main regression models (Table  3 below).

We identify statistically significant bilateral associations, with a significance level of at least 10%, between SWB and the following variables: health , education , freedom , depriv_living , depriv_power , group_member , and friend_car . As expected, health , education , freedom , depriv_living , and group_member are positively associated with SWB. Depriv_power exhibits a positive relationship, and friend_car demonstrates a negative relationship. The remaining associations are statistically insignificant.

For the key part of the research, we construct four regression models as specified earlier to estimate the effects of our explanatory variables on the dependent variable (SWB). Table 3 presents the results of all models and it also shows that the coefficients and significance are stable across the models. Footnote 3

It can be seen in the table that Model 2 and Model 4 have significantly lower numbers of observations. This is a consequence of using the depriv_power variable in these two models. However, the lower number of observations itself does not affect the results of the regression models—the findings remain the same also in cases when this variable is excluded Footnote 4 or replaced with an alternative variable of a similar meaning. Footnote 5

Table 3 also shows that of the fourteen variables included in the final model (Model 4), ten are statistically significant at least at the 10% significance level ( all else being equal —that is, controlling for all the other variables in the regression analysis). Regarding the basic demographic characteristics, sex is significant, indicating that men tend to express higher satisfaction levels than women. In contrast, age has no proven effects.

All three dimensions of human development ( living_standard , health , education ) are statistically significant (living standard and education at the 1% significance level, health at the 10% significance level) in the expected direction. Better living standards, improved health, and higher education all exert a positive influence on SWB. Similarly, we observe the anticipated relationship with freedom of choice: a higher degree of freedom corresponds to increased SWB (5% significance level).

Deprivation within the household pertaining to access to resources ( depriv_living ) reduces SWB (the result is significant at the 10% significance level). The model reveals a positive effect of educational deprivation ( depriv_educ , significant at the 1% significance level). This suggests that when an individual within the household possesses higher educational attainment than the respondent, there is an increase in the respondent's SWB, holding all other variables constant. Being not involved in pivotal decisions within the household ( depriv_power ) has a positive effect on SWB in the model (10% significance level).

Social capital built through membership in different formal or informal groups (group_membership) positively affects SWB (10% significance level). Knowing people with the capacity to facilitate valued services for the respondent ( friend_car ) have a negative effect on SWB (the result is valid at the 1% significance level). Variable no_friends has an expected relation with SWB; however, the result is narrowly insignificant ( p  = 0.176). Close relationships with statutory ( gov_knows ) and customary ( villhead_knows ) government representatives have no proven effects.

5 Discussion

SWB is generally very low in the study area of microregion Muyo-Mukukutu, Western Province of Zambia. In the World Happiness Report 2023 (Helliwell et al., 2023 ), the most recent score of Zambia at national level is 3.98, which positions the country among the ten least satisfied countries where life satisfaction is reported (the data are available for 137 countries). In the area we surveyed, the score is just 3.05. A similar trend can be seen with freedom of choice: while in the surveyed area only 64% of people are satisfied with the degree of freedom they have, the Zambian national proportion is 79% (Helliwell et al., 2023 ). This can be possibly related to the generally lower living standards in the region compared to the rest of the country. Footnote 6

Our model indicates that women have lower SWB even when controlled for other factors. The comparatively lower level of SWB for women may be explained by persistent gender-related norms resulting in disadvantages in terms of access to land, resources or alternative livelihood sources in rural Zambia (Shipekesa & Jayne 2012 ; Evans, 2018 ). In our model, age is not significantly associated with SWB. Although the exact relationship between age and SWB is still widely debated (e.g., Biermann et al., 2022 ), most studies find either a U-shaped or linear effect of age on SWB (Blanchflower, 2021 ; López Ulloa et al., 2013 ). The insignificance of age in this case study may have several possible explanations, for example the limited sample size, or unaccounted contextual factors that may influence the impact of age on SWB.

As expected, we observe a positive relationship between objective development indicators and SWB. The basic three dimensions of human development—standard of living, health, and education—are among key determinants of SWB in our study. These results concur with previous research on SWB (Elgar et al., 2011 ; Howell & Howell, 2008 ; Kulkarni et al., 2023 ) and possibly confirm the validity and relevance of standard indices such as the Human Development Index or Multidimensional Poverty Index.

Concerning intra-household inequalities, our hypotheses encompass both positive and negative associations for education and power deprivation. Additionally, we argue that disparities in access to household resources exhibit a negative correlation with SWB. Our results confirm the hypotheses across all three dimensions under examination. Firstly, while it could be assumed that having a lower educational level evokes feelings of deprivation, our study shows the exact opposite. A more educated individual in the household seems to create a positive spillover effect, benefiting other members rather than causing feelings of deprivation. Indeed, better education has been linked to increased SWB through higher income and overall livelihood opportunities (see Kristoffersen, 2018 for a review), which may positively affect the household as a whole.

Secondly, individuals with limited influence over decision-making within the household manifested high-levels of SWB. This is in contrast to findings of Srivastava et al. ( 2021a ). One plausible explanation lies in the reduced sense of pressure and stress that might be associated with decision-making and lower level of responsibility for the well-being of other household members. Footnote 7 Consequently, we can argue that the focus should potentially shift from "power deprivation" to highlighting the deprivation stemming from an overwhelming sense of responsibility. The responsibility deprivation logic may also partially explain our results concerning the educational attainment of different household members, as the expectations and pressures related to providing for the household may rise with an individual's education.

Thirdly, and as anticipated, restricted access to household resources exhibits a detrimental impact on SWB. When other individuals within a household are perceived as being materially better off, it leads to feelings of relative deprivation for the less affluent member. Additionally, it evokes a perception of inequity or disadvantage (Bolt & Bird, 2003 ). These results are in line with previous research addressing the role of intra-household resource distribution and decision-making (e.g., Bárcena-Martín et al., 2020 ). Interestingly, the results point to the complex (and possibly indirect) effects and mechanisms behind the different overlapping dimensions of inequality discussed in the first part of this paper. Our results show that while deprivation in terms of educational attainment seems to create positive spillovers and enhance paritcipants’ SWB, perceived material deprivation negatively affects SWB.

With regard to the social capital and relational aspects, we introduced earlier several hypotheses covering five dimensions in total. We confirm that group membership increases people's SWB. This can be attributed to factors such as a heightened sense of belongingness, augmented social support networks, enhanced interpersonal relationships, a shared sense of purpose and objectives with fellow group members (Elgar et al., 2011 ; Helliwell et al., 2020 ; Moose, 2010 ; Rojas, 2018 ; Sarraccino, 2010 ). However, we did not find a statistically significant relationship between the absence of friendships and SWB, which is not in accordance with previous research findings (Helliwell & Putnam, 2004 ; Leung et al., 2011 ).

We identify a somewhat surprising relationship between networks providing the capacity to facilitate valued services for the respondent and SWB. It seems that deprivation caused by direct interaction with individuals who occupy clearly superior socio-economic positions relative to the respondent outweighs the positive effect of substituting limited resources by having somebody who is able to provide help when needed.

In terms of formal social relationships, the model indicates no effect of having close relations with statutory ( gov_knows ) and customary ( villhead_knows ) government representatives. Several factors may account for this outcome, including resource limitations and inequality, insufficient political influence, corruption or low trustworthiness of these representatives (see for example Córdova & Layton, 2016 ; Jovanović, 2016 ; Tay et al., 2014 ). The impact of 'knowing someone' depends on the quality and nature of these relationships. When there is low trust or the relationships lack quality, it may lead to a diminished belief in the ability of leaders to enhance the well-being of the respondents (see also Addai et al., 2014 ). Consequently, having connections with statutory or customary representatives does not automatically translate into direct benefits in terms of one's well-being. Although this finding is somewhat surprising, particularly in light of previous research that examined various facets of social capital and trust, a recent study by Glatz and Schwerdtfeger ( 2022 ) suggests that the causal relationship between SWB, social capital, and trust may be more intricate.

Finally, we would like to note a few limitations of this study. Although we believe that the Muoyo-Mukukutu area is not considerably different (in terms of relations between SWB and factors that determine it) from other rural areas of Zambia (and other countries of Sub-Saharan Africa on a similar level of socio-economic development), the results presented in this paper are applicable primarily for the surveyed area. Our results may be subject to influences such as local habits, traditions, or environmental nuances not fully recognized by researchers. We also acknowledge that (potential) presence of sample bias within our dataset poses an inherent risk of unexpected influences on our study outcomes.

We note that the study’s cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. Naturally, such a design fails to capture the dynamic nature of phenomena over time. This temporal limitation restricts us from discerning how variables evolve or interact longitudinally, potentially overlooking important developmental trajectories or fluctuations. In general, cross-sectional studies suffer from compromised validity and generalizability of findings, particularly when investigating complex phenomena such as subjective well-being. A longitudinal study would provide more robust evidence of the relationships between factors analysed in the study and subjective well-being.

6 Conclusion and Recommendations

This paper investigates multiple factors that impact SWB within the Muoyo-Mukukutu region of the Western Province in Zambia. Drawing upon existing well-being literature, our conceptual framework encompasses numerous determinants of SWB, with a specific emphasis on exploring the associations between SWB and various types of inequalities and associated deprivations, notably those pertaining to intra-household dynamics and social capital.

The results highlight the importance of addressing regional disparities in terms of HD and SWB and directing resources and initiatives to uplift disadvantaged areas such as Muoyo-Mukukutu. Our results also confirm the significance of HD dimensions (standard of living, health, and education) in shaping SWB. To this end, our findings support the current trend in development policy aiming at general improvevement of HD, reduction of gender inequalities in all spheres of HD, and other factors that are causing lower SWB among women.

Furthermore, our results suggest that encouraging more educated family members to impart their knowledge and skills to others can amplify the positive spillover effect of education and further contribute to SWB. Concurrently, policies can facilitate opportunities for lifelong learning and skill development within households. Such initiatives can have stronger effects in disadvantaged communities with low levels of education among all household members. Our findings support the idea that where resources are extremely constrained, focusing on the education of a single household member can be a viable strategy for improving SWB. However, this may reinforce the disadvantaged positions of members already facing various forms of discrimination.

Moreover, acknowledging that restricted decision-making power within households can contribute to improved well-being, policymakers may need to reassess strategies to ensure that empowerment efforts do not inadvertently overwhelm individuals with excessive responsibilities. Empowerment initiatives should target and focus on those people with very limited decision-making power within the household. Our result support placing greater emphasis on creating a better environment for sharing and alleviating responsibilities within households that is increasingly becoming a more integral part of empowerment initiatives. Additionally, these interventions can enable household members to make informed decisions regarding fair resource allocation, thereby enhancing SWB, particularly of those with limited access to household resources. Sharing responsibilities and resources may eventually help to reduce or alleviate discriminatory practices such as limited access to land for women.

Finally, policymakers should focus on equitable access to resources and services so that individuals do not feel overly reliant on informal contacts. One effective policy to address this issue could involve continuing and more targeted support of community groups. For instance, the awareness about the benefits of group membership might be strengthened through clearly articulated benefits for objective and subjective wellbeing hence encouraging individuals to actively seek opportunities to join or establish such groups. However, most importantly, group membership opportunities should be inclusive and accessible to all segments of the population, especially to marginalized and vulnerable groups. We note that to prevent the potential failure of the groups, the promotion of the group establishment and membership should be done in a culturally sensitive manner.

We invite other researchers to delve deeper into the subject of intra-household inequalities. Further investigation is needed to analyze the complex mechanisms behind “power deprivation” and deprivation stemming from an overwhelming sense of responsibility within the household. Since the “head of household” variable did not show a statistically significant effect on SWB, it would be valuable to conduct a more comprehensive examination of the roles and responsibilities assumed by individuals within households. Furthermore, it is important to investigate how power deprivation, roles and responsibilities of household heads, and the distribution of educational benefits within household interact.

By 2030 progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40% of the population at a rate higher than the national average.

The analytical approach shown in Fig.  2 can be also understood as our ex-post model. It is quite similar to our original (or ex-ante) considerations. Initially, the idea was to employ additional demographic factors (e.g. language) which turned out to be impossible (for example, almost all people shared the same language). Moreover, we intended to focus more on factors related to farming, land tenure, and personal attitudes (e.g., risk aversion) of the respondents. After a careful assessment of the collected data and relationship among variables, we concluded that these ideas are better suited for a separate research analysis.

Additionally, Model 4 underwent a sensitivity analysis within the framework outlined as follows: In every step, one variable from Model 4 was excluded and replaced with an alternative variable (provided its existence) that measured the same underlying concept (while all other variables in the model remain unchanged). This process was repeated until no further alternative variables were available. The outcomes of this process are detailed in the appendix. The model exhibited a high degree of stability throughout the procedure.

When Model 2 is repeated without the depriv_power variable, 366 observations enter the estimation, providing results with the same coefficients’ signs with even higher statistical significance. The same is true when the depriv_power variable is replaced with a similar variable capturing power deprivation within households ( I_am_head_household ). In this case, estimations are based on 365 observations, providing the same signs and a higher statistical significance (the substituting variable itself is, however, statistically insignificant).

When Model 4 is performed without the depriv_power variable, 358 observations go into the model. Results remain essentially unchanged, with three minor exceptions: (i) depriv_living is now narrowly insignificant (was marginally significant), (ii) group_member is now narrowly insignificant (was marginally significant), (iii) no_friends is now marginally significant (was narrowly insignificant). If the depriv_power variable is replaced in Model 4 with a similar variable capturing power deprivation within households ( I_am_head_household ), estimations are based on 357 observations and the results remain unchanged, with the following minor exceptions: (i) health is now significant at 5% level (was significant at 10%), (ii) depriv_living is now narrowly insignificant (was marginally significant), (iii) group_member is now narrowly insignificant (was marginally significant), (iv) no_friends is now marginally significant (was narrowly insignificant). The substituting variable itself is statistically insignificant.

We compared household possession shares, including items such as radios, refrigerators, bicycles, and others, within our sample against the data from the national DHS survey (Zambia Statistics Agency et al. 2019). Our findings indicate that all possession shares within our sample are consistently lower than those reported on a nationwide scale.

We note that when we measured influence over decision-making within the household by simply asking respondents whether they were a head of household (assuming that head of household has bigger influence), the statistically significant effect disappeared (see the appendix). This is not surprising since we assume, in line with findings of Srivastava et al. ( 2021b ), that some of the heads of households are just nominal rather than functional heads of households.

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Acknowledgements

We extend our gratitude to Štěpán Bubák and Munalula Munalula Kingstone for their contributions to the organization and execution of data collection. Additionally, we express our profound appreciation to Lenka Dušková and Zuzana Harmáčková for their erudite insights, which facilitated the refinement of our questionnaire.

Open access publishing supported by the National Technical Library in Prague. The research received funding from the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic, grant no. TL05000162—The role of participatory social-ecological research in strengthening international development cooperation (Coop4Wellbeing). We acknowledge support from AdAgriF—advanced methods of greenhouse gases emission reduction and sequestration in agriculture and forest landscape for climate change mitigation (CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004635). The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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Conceptualization: Schlossarek, Harmáček, Seidlová, Suchá; Methodology: Schlossarek, Harmáček; Validation: Schlossarek, Harmáček; Investigation: Schlossarek, Harmáček; Formal analysis: Harmáček, Schlossarek; Writing—original draft: Schlossarek, Seidlová, Harmáček, Suchá; Writing—review and editing: Schlossarek, Suchá, Seidlová, Harmáček; Project administration: Schlossarek; Funding acquisition: Suchá.

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Appendix: Sensitivity analysis of Model 4

We carried out a sensitivity analysis of Model 4: we performed the model ten times, and each time, one variable from the original model was replaced by an alternative variable (provided its existence) that measured the same underlying concept, while all other variables in the model remain unchanged. The results of the alternative variables are presented in the last column of the table below. The Model 4 exhibited a high degree of stability throughout the sensitivity testing, i.e., results of all other variables remained stable in each of the alternative models.

• Robust standard errors are reported in parentheses.
• *Result is statistically significant at the 10% significance level.
• **Result is statistically significant at the 5% significance level.
• ***Result is statistically significant at the 1% significance level.

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Schlossarek, M., Harmáček, J., Seidlová, A. et al. Inequalities and Social Capital as Factors of Subjective Well-Being: Case Study from Western Province, Zambia. J Happiness Stud 25 , 93 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00778-z

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The Abrams Clinic represents Friends of the Chicago River and the Sierra Club in their efforts to hold Trump Tower in downtown Chicago accountable for withdrawing water illegally from the Chicago River. To cool the building, Trump Tower draws water at high volumes, similar to industrial factories or power plants, but Trump Tower operated for more than a decade without ever conducting the legally required studies to determine the impact of those operations on aquatic life or without installing sufficient equipment to protect aquatic life consistent with federal regulations. After the Clinic sent a notice of intent to sue Trump Tower, the State of Illinois filed its own case in the summer of 2018, and the Clinic moved successfully to intervene in that case. In 2023-24, motions practice and discovery continued. Working with co-counsel at Northwestern University’s Pritzker Law School’s Environmental Advocacy Center, the Clinic moved to amend its complaint to include Trump Tower’s systematic underreporting each month of the volume of water that it intakes from and discharges to the Chicago River. The Clinic and co-counsel addressed Trump Tower’s motion to dismiss some of our clients’ claims, and we filed a motion for summary judgment on our claim that Trump Tower has committed a public nuisance. We also worked closely with our expert, Dr. Peter Henderson, on a supplemental disclosure and on defending an additional deposition of him. In summer 2024, the Clinic is defending its motion for summary judgment and challenging Trump Tower’s own motion for summary judgment. The Clinic is also preparing for trial, which could take place as early as fall 2024.

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The Abrams Clinic supported grassroots organizations advocating for energy justice in low-income communities and Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) communities in Michigan. With the Clinic’s representation, these organizations intervened in cases before the Michigan Public Service Commission (MPSC), which regulates investor-owned utilities. Students conducted discovery, drafted written testimony, cross-examined utility executives, participated in settlement discussions, and filed briefs for these projects. The Clinic’s representation has elevated the concerns of these community organizations and forced both the utilities and regulators to consider issues of equity to an unprecedented degree. This year, on behalf of Soulardarity (Highland Park, MI), We Want Green, Too (Detroit, MI), and Urban Core Collective (Grand Rapids, MI), Clinic students engaged in eight contested cases before the MPSC against DTE Electric, DTE Gas, and Consumers Energy, as well as provided support for our clients’ advocacy in other non-contested MPSC proceedings.

The Clinic started this past fall with wins in three cases. First, the Clinic’s clients settled with DTE Electric in its Integrated Resource Plan case. The settlement included an agreement to close the second dirtiest coal power plant in Michigan three years early, $30 million from DTE’s shareholders to assist low-income customers in paying their bills, and $8 million from DTE’s shareholders toward a community fund that assists low-income customers with installing energy efficiency improvements, renewable energy, and battery technology. Second, in DTE Electric’s 2023 request for a rate hike (a “rate case”), the Commission required DTE Electric to develop a more robust environmental justice analysis and rejected the Company’s second attempt to waive consumer protections through a proposed electric utility prepayment program with a questionable history of success during its pilot run. The final Commission order and the administrative law judge’s proposal for final decision cited the Clinic’s testimony and briefs. Third, in Consumers Electric’s 2023 rate case, the Commission rejected the Company’s request for a higher ratepayer-funded return on its investments and required the Company to create a process that will enable intervenors to obtain accurate GIS data. The Clinic intends to use this data to map the disparate impact of infrastructure investment in low-income and BIPOC communities.

In the winter, the Clinic filed public comments regarding DTE Electric and Consumers Energy’s “distribution grid plans” (DGP) as well as supported interventions in two additional cases: Consumers Energy’s voluntary green pricing (VGP) case and the Clinic’s first case against the gas utility DTE Gas. Beginning with the DGP comments, the Clinic first addressed Consumers’s 2023 Electric Distribution Infrastructure Investment Plan (EDIIP), which detailed current distribution system health and the utility’s approximately $7 billion capital project planning ($2 billion of which went unaccounted for in the EDIIP) over 2023–2028. The Clinic then commented on DTE Electric’s 2023 DGP, which outlined the utility’s opaque project prioritization and planned more than $9 billion in capital investments and associated maintenance over 2024–2028. The comments targeted four areas of deficiencies in both the EDIIP and DGP: (1) inadequate consideration of distributed energy resources (DERs) as providing grid reliability, resiliency, and energy transition benefits; (2) flawed environmental justice analysis, particularly with respect to the collection of performance metrics and the narrow implementation of the Michigan Environmental Justice Screen Tool; (3) inequitable investment patterns across census tracts, with emphasis on DTE Electric’s skewed prioritization for retaining its old circuits rather than upgrading those circuits; and (4) failing to engage with community feedback.

For the VGP case against Consumers, the Clinic supported the filing of both an initial brief and reply brief requesting that the Commission reject the Company’s flawed proposal for a “community solar” program. In a prior case, the Clinic advocated for the development of a community solar program that would provide low-income, BIPOC communities with access to clean energy. As a result of our efforts, the Commission approved a settlement agreement requiring the Company “to evaluate and provide a strawman recommendation on community solar in its Voluntary Green Pricing Program.” However, the Company’s subsequent proposal in its VGP case violated the Commission’s order because it (1) was not consistent with the applicable law, MCL 460.1061; (2) was not a true community solar program; (3) lacked essential details; (4) failed to compensate subscribers sufficiently; (5) included overpriced and inflexible subscriptions; (6) excessively limited capacity; and (7) failed to provide a clear pathway for certain participants to transition into other VGP programs. For these reasons, the Clinic argued that the Commission should reject the Company’s proposal.

In DTE Gas’s current rate case, the Clinic worked with four witnesses to develop testimony that would rebut DTE Gas’s request for a rate hike on its customers. The testimony advocated for a pathway to a just energy transition that avoids dumping the costs of stranded gas assets on the low-income and BIPOC communities that are likely to be the last to electrify. Instead, the testimony proposed that the gas and electric utilities undertake integrated planning that would prioritize electric infrastructure over gas infrastructure investment to ensure that DTE Gas does not over-invest in gas infrastructure that will be rendered obsolete in the coming decades. The Clinic also worked with one expert witness to develop an analysis of DTE Gas’s unaffordable bills and inequitable shutoff, deposit, and collections practices. Lastly, the Clinic offered testimony on behalf of and from community members who would be directly impacted by the Company’s rate hike and lack of affordable and quality service. Clinic students have spent the summer drafting an approximately one-hundred-page brief making these arguments formally. We expect the Commission’s decision this fall.

Finally, both DTE Electric and Consumers Energy have filed additional requests for rate increases after the conclusion of their respective rate cases filed in 2023. On behalf of our Clients, the Clinic has intervened in these cases, and clinic students have already reviewed thousands of pages of documents and started to develop arguments and strategies to protect low-income and BIPOC communities from the utility’s ceaseless efforts to increase the cost of energy.

Corporate Climate Greenwashing

The Abrams Environmental Law Clinic worked with a leading international nonprofit dedicated to using the law to protect the environment to research corporate climate greenwashing, focusing on consumer protection, green financing, and securities liability. Clinic students spent the year examining an innovative state law, drafted a fifty-page guide to the statute and relevant cases, and examined how the law would apply to a variety of potential cases. Students then presented their findings in a case study and oral presentation to members of ClientEarth, including the organization’s North American head and members of its European team. The project helped identify the strengths and weaknesses of potential new strategies for increasing corporate accountability in the fight against climate change.

Land Contamination, Lead, and Hazardous Waste

The Abrams Clinic continues to represent East Chicago, Indiana, residents who live or lived on or adjacent to the USS Lead Superfund site. This year, the Clinic worked closely with the East Chicago/Calumet Coalition Community Advisory Group (CAG) to advance the CAG’s advocacy beyond the Superfund site and the adjacent Dupont RCRA site. Through multiple forms of advocacy, the clinics challenged the poor performance and permit modification and renewal attempts of Tradebe Treatment and Recycling, LLC (Tradebe), a hazardous waste storage and recycling facility in the community. Clinic students sent letters to US EPA and Indiana Department of Environmental Management officials about how IDEM has failed to assess meaningful penalties against Tradebe for repeated violations of the law and how IDEM has allowed Tradebe to continue to threaten public and worker health and safety by not improving its operations. Students also drafted substantial comments for the CAG on the US EPA’s Lead and Copper Rule improvements, the Suppliers’ Park proposed cleanup, and Sims Metal’s proposed air permit revisions. The Clinic has also continued working with the CAG, environmental experts, and regulators since US EPA awarded $200,000 to the CAG for community air monitoring. The Clinic and its clients also joined comments drafted by other environmental organizations about poor operations and loose regulatory oversight of several industrial facilities in the area.

Endangered Species

The Abrams Clinic represented the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Hoosier Environmental Council (HEC) in litigation regarding the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s (Service) failure to list the Kirtland’s snake as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. The Kirtland’s snake is a small, secretive, non-venomous snake historically located across the Midwest and the Ohio River Valley. Development and climate change have undermined large portions of the snake’s habitat, and populations are declining. Accordingly, the Clinic sued the Service in the US District Court for the District of Columbia last summer over the Service’s denial of CBD’s request to have the Kirtland’s snake protected. This spring, the Clinic was able to reach a settlement with the Service that requires the Service to reconsider its listing decision for the Kirtland’s snake and to pay attorney fees.

The Clinic also represented CBD in preparation for litigation regarding the Service’s failure to list another species as threatened or endangered. Threats from land development and climate change have devastated this species as well, and the species has already been extirpated from two of the sixteen US states in its range. As such, the Clinic worked this winter and spring to prepare a notice of intent (NOI) to sue the Service. The Team poured over hundreds of FOIA documents and dug into the Service’s supporting documentation to create strong arguments against the Service in the imminent litigation. The Clinic will send the NOI and file a complaint in the next few months.

Students and Faculty

Twenty-four law school students from the classes of 2024 and 2025 participated in the Clinic, performing complex legal research, reviewing documents obtained through discovery, drafting legal research memos and briefs, conferring with clients, conducting cross-examination, participating in settlement conferences, and arguing motions. Students secured nine clerkships, five were heading to private practice after graduation, and two are pursuing public interest work. Sam Heppell joined the Clinic from civil rights private practice, bringing the Clinic to its full complement of three attorneys.